Lecture 15 Adjective and Adjective Phrase
Adjectives are open-class words. They are chiefly used as modifying elements in a sentence. In this lecture we shall talk about classification and morphology of adjectives as well as formation and uses of adjective phrases. 15.1 Classification of adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into one-word and compound adjectives, central and peripheral adjectives, dynamic and stative adjectives, gradable and non-gradable adjectives. dynamic and stative adjectives
Semantically, adjectives can be dynamic or stative.
Most adjectives are stative adjectives, such as tall, short, big, small, and describe the static characteristics of animate or inanimate objects. Dynamic adjectives describe the dynamic properties of people or things, such as careful, generous, helpful, patient, witty.
Discussion: different usages of dynamic and stative adjectives (P388)
Dynamic adjectives can go with the progressive aspect of be, while stative adjectives cannot. e.g. She is being witty. ×She is being tall.
Dynamic adjectives can co-occur with imperative be, while stative adjectives cannot. e.g. Be patient! ×Be pretty.
Dynamic adjectives can occur in causative constructions in which it is impossible to use stative adjectives cannot.
e.g. I persuaded her to be generous. × I persuaded her to be pretty.
gradable and non-gradable adjectives
Most adjectives are gradable adjectives. All dynamic and most stative adjectives are gradable adjectives The few non-gradable ones include some denominal adjectives that denote classification or provenance (atomic scientist, Chinese carpet). Some other adjectives, such as perfect, excellent, extreme, are also nongradable because their lexical meanings have already denoted a high or extreme degree.
15.2 Adjective (phrase) as modifier in noun phrases
As has been mentioned before, most adjectives can function both as modifier and as complement. In many cases, these two functions are interchangeable. e.g. The boy is intelligent. →He is an intelligent boy. The boy is so intelligent. → He is so intelligent a boy. Premodifying adjectives
As modifiers in the noun phrase, adjectives usually appear after the determiner and before the headword, but sometimes they may also take a post-head position. When two or more premodifying adjectives co-occur on the same level, they are usually coordinated in the normal order of shorter members preceding the longer. It was a rainy, windy, freezing day.
If there is an adverb of degree in the premodification, it may be placed where the speaker intends to.
It was a rather rainy, windy, freezing day.
It was a rainy, windy, thoroughly freezing day.
When two or more premodifying adjectives appear on different levels, their normal order is like this: (determiner: predetermier -- central determiner-- postdeterminer) →(若有表程度的副词，可放在形容词前)the speaker‘s evaluation (评注) →size, shape, age，etc.(大小长短高低、形状、年龄、新旧) →color →nationality, origin, material (国别、来源、材料) →(classifier)use or purpose or v.-ing& v-ed（表用途、目的的形容词或分词等类别词）→ nominal (名词性定语)→noun 多个形容词同时修饰一个名词时，排列顺序大致如下： 可以置于冠词前的形容词：all, both, such等；
冠词、指示代词、所有格形容词、不定形容词：a, an, the, this, those, your, his, our, any, some等；
序数词：first, second, third等； 基数词：one, two, three等；表示
性质、状态、质量的形容词：nice, good, sweet, useful等；
表示大小、长短、形状的形容词：big, short, small, square, round 等； 表示年龄、新旧、温度的形容词：young, new, old, cold, hot等； 表示颜色的形容词:blue, white, brown等；
表示国籍、产地、区域的形容词：British, Chinese, American等； 表示材料、用作形容词的名词：iron, oil, stone, silk等； 分词：floating, handmade等
e.g. a large antique brown and white German beer-mug 一只 大 古代的 棕白两色的 德国的 啤酒杯 译：一只德国古代棕白两色的大啤酒杯
a weak small spare old man 一个瘦弱的小老头
a well-known German medical school 一所著名的德国医学院
an interesting little red French oil painting一幅有趣的小型法国油画
his first two interesting little red French oil paintings 他的前两幅有趣的小型法国油画 试译： 几条 新的主要的 城市 公路 A few new major urban highways 一双 漂亮的 俄国小 马靴
a pair of beautiful little Russian riding boots postmodifying adjectives refer to P398-400
15.3Adjective (phrase) as complement (refer to P402-404)
15.4 Discussion for some details about the place of adjectives in the sentence
形容词作定语修饰some, any, no, every和body, thing等构成的复合不定代词时，应放在其后面。
1. Is there anything wrong with your bicycle? 你的自行车有毛病吗？
2. Anyone intelligent can understand it. 任何有头脑的人都能理解这一点。
以前缀a-开头的某些表语形容词（如alike, alive, alone, afraid, awake, aware, alight, afloat, asleep）必须放在后面作定语，相当于省去了关系代词和系动词的定语从句。 3. He was the only person (that was) awake at the moment. 他是那时唯一醒着的人。 4. The house (which was) ablaze is next door to me. 那幢着火的房子就在我隔壁。
以后缀-ible或-able结尾的某些形容词（acceptable, adaptable, available, imaginable, possible, obtainable ）放在所修饰的名词前或后意义不变，但是名词前有形容词最高级或修饰时，要
放在后面。
5. I doubt whether we can complete our contract in the time available (in the available time). 我怀疑我们是否能在现有时间内完成我们的合同。
6. This is the only book available. 这是仅有的一本书了。
7. That is the greatest difficulty imaginable. 那是所能想像得到的最大的困难。
形容词短语作定语一般要后置，相当于一个省略了关系代词和系动词的定语从句。 8. A man (who is) so difficult to please must be hard to work.
英语中有些形容词既可作前置定语也可作后置定语，但所表达的意思不同。 9. The doctor concerned is on holiday. 主管医师在休假。
The concerned doctor rang for an ambulance. 心情焦虑的医生打电话叫救护车。 10. This is a very involved explanation. 这是一个非常复杂的说明。
We have discussed the issue with the people involved. 我们已经与有关的人讨论了这个问题。 11. This is a proper question. 这是一个恰当的问题。
The question proper has not been answered. 问题本身没有得到回答。 12. the present member 目前的成员 the member present 当时在场的成员 13. the responsible man可依赖的人 the man responsible应负责的人
15.5 Exercises 23A 23B 23C 23D 23E 23F 课堂练习
1. He is one of ______ .
a. the greatest alive author b. the greatest alive authors
c. the greatest authors who are still alive d. the greatest author who are still alive 2. Radio, television and press ______ of conveying news and information. a. are the most three common means b. are the most common three means c. are the three most common means d. are three the most common means 3. He was _______.
a. the happiest alive man b. the alive happiest man c. the happiest man alive d. the alive man happiest 4. The doctors have tried _____ to save his life.
a. everything humanly possible b. humanly possible everything c. humanly everything possible d. everything possible humanly 5. This is ________.
a. best available means b. the available means best c. the best means available d. available best means
Lecture 16 Adverb and Adverb Phrase
Semantically, adverbs can be subdivided into adverbs of manner, adverbs of degree, adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of place, as well as conjunctive and explanatory adverbs. 16.1 Chief uses of adverbs and adverb phrases
Adverbs and adverb phrases are chiefly used as modifiers in phrases and as adverbials in clauses or sentences.
Adverbs as modifier in phrases
As a phrase element, adverbs are chiefly used:
As modifier of verbs: They have already prepared their lessons. As modifier of adjectives: He has been extremely busy these days. As modifier of adverbs: You translated the article quite well.
As modifier of prepositions or conjunctions: She stood exactly in the middle of the room. 正中央。
As modifier of determiners: Virtually all the students took part in the discussion. They recovered roughly half their equipment.
As modifier of nouns or whole noun phrases（可放在名词前增强语气，形式为副词+不定冠词或限定词+名词，但是名词前有形容词时不定冠词可以放在副词前）: It takes quite some time. She is rather a fool.
We held a quite good party (quite a good party). 我们举行了一个蛮好的晚会。 This is rather a difficult task. (a rather difficult task) 这是一个相当困难的任务。 Adverbs phrases as adverbial in clauses or sentences
As a clause element, adverb phrases are chiefly used as adjuncts（修饰性状语）, disjuncts（评注性状语）,
and conjuncts（连接性状语）.
When used as an adjunct, the adverb phrase describes the time, place or manner concerned with the action,
process or state denoted by the verb. In this use, the adverb phrase is relatively mobile, being able to take the
initial, medial or end position. Generally speaking, time adjuncts may occur at all the three position.
Manner adjuncts appear more often at the end position. Sometimes for rhetorical reasons, a manner adjunct
may occur at the head of the sentence.
Place adjuncts normally appear a the end of the sentence.
The functions of adverb phrases as disjunct and conjunct will be fully treated in 36.3. adjunct (修饰)： Quickly they left for home.
conjunct (连接) We‘ll expect you; by the way, dinner will be at night. disjunct (评注) In my opinion, you‘d better go with us. Position of adverbs
A. degree →manner → place →（frequency） → time
He did his experiment carefully in the lab three times yesterday. I‘ll meet you at five o‘clock tomorrow morning. He walked round the park twice before supper.
B. Frequency adverbs （通常位于行为动词前，系动词、助动词和情态动词后，若放在行为动词后时要加very or quite） frequently ↑
always(100%) →usually=not always(80%) → often(60%) → rarely/ not usually almost never hardly ever ↑ ↑
sometimes(40%) → seldom=not often or occasionally (20%) → never=not ever (0%) e.g. I usually get up very early.
He was never absent from the class last term. I shall always remember it. You cannot always be right.
He comes here very / quite often.
C. the following adverbs can direct adverbial clauses:
a. the moment, the minute, the instant, the day, the year, next time, each time, every time b. immediately = directly = instantly = as soon as e.g. The instant he opened the door he saw the thief. Directly he uttered those words there was a dead silence. 16.2 Adverbs with or without –ly
There are adverbs that have two forms: one is identical with a corresponding adjective, the other is with –ly. With some of these adverbs, the two forms carry the same meaning; with some others, the meanings of the two forms are slightly different; with still other adverbs, the meanings conveyed by the two forms are entirely different. This section will deal with the meanings of some such adverbs.
Two forms with no difference in basic meaning
There are adverbs with two forms which are identical in meaning but are used in different contexts.一般说来，
形容词形的副词在句中作用相当于表语或补语，或多用于口语中；以ly结尾的副词在句中作用相当于
程度或方式状语，有时两者可互换。
e.g. We must stand firm.我们必须站稳立场。
They fixed the post firmly in the ground. 他们将那根柱子牢牢地固定在地上。
The workers decided to go slow.（slow仅用于go slow怠工，其他场合常用slowly） How slowly/slow the time passes!
Don‘t talk so loud / loudly. Speak louder, I can‘t hear you? Who laughed loudest? 常见的这类副词有：
cheap /cheaply right /rightly clear /clearly slow / slowly close / closely tight / tightly fair / fairly wide / widely firm / firmly wrong / wrongly quick / quickly deep / deeply Two forms different or slightly different in meaning
These adverbs also include some of the items cited in the preceding section. He arrived at ten sharp.(用于钟点后表准时)
At he crossroads we turned sharp to the left. (向左急转) Two forms entirely different in meaning
He is working hard. He could hardly see anything.
He was justly punished. I wonder just how good he is at spoken English. He arrived too late for the train. His studies haven‘t been improving lately.
That is the thing which worries me most. The guests at the party were mostly young men. 16.3 Discussion: adverbs or adjectives?
ly是常见的副词结尾，但有些形容词也以其结尾，应避免误用。常见的这类形容词有： lively 活泼的 fatherly 慈父般的costly昂贵的 lovely 可爱的 cowardly胆小的 lonely 孤独的 ugly 丑陋的 silly 愚蠢的 friendly友好的 earthly 地球的 The car is too costly for me to buy. 这辆车太贵了， 我买不起。 That was a lively discussion. 那是一个非常热烈的讨论。 以–ly结尾的既可作形容词也可作副词用的词
likely很可能（的） deathly死一样（的） monthly每月（的） kindly仁慈（的） early早（的）
weekly每周（的） cleanly清洁（的） yearly每年（的） daily每日（的） deadly致命（的） I shall very likely be here again next month.(副词)
It is very likely that I shall be here again next month.(形容词) I am paid on a daily basis. 我领的是日薪。(形容词)
The old man goes to the park daily to feed the birds. (副词) 有些形容词也可作副词的词
Put a clean sheet on the bed. 在床上铺上干净的床单。(形容词)
The students swept the classroom clean. 学生们把教室打扫得很干净。(副词) The smoke rose straight up. 青烟直直地往上升。(副词)
The little boy drew a straight line. 小男孩儿画了一条直线。(形容词) 课堂练习
1. This is the place I _____ want to go to. a. mostly b. the mostly c. most d. much 2. He is very ambitious; he aims _______. a. high b. low c. highly d. lowly
3. Today, _______ major new products without conducting elaborate market research. a. corporations hardly introduce ever b. corporations hardly ever introduce c. hardly corporations introduce ever d. hardly corporations ever introduce 4. ―Is John about ready?‖ ------―Yes, he‘s ________. ‖ a. finished dressing nearly b. finishing nearly dressing c. nearly finished dressing d. nearly finishing dressing
5. Parents always expect their children quiet at home, but ______. a. very rarely they are b. they very rarely are c. they are very rarely d. are they very rarely 6. Can you park your car near the shops? Yes, __________.
a. i can usually b. I can seldom c. I usually can d. I seldom can
7. I couldn‘t find _____, and so I took this one.
a. a large enough coat b. An enough large coat c. A large coat enough d a coat enough large
8. He moved away from his parents, and missed them ______ enjoy the exciting life in New York. a. too much to b. enough to c. very much to d. much so as to
9. ―He seems _______ tired to do it.‖ ―But I am only _______ glad to do it.‖ a. very ... too b. Extremely...too c. too... too d. very ...very 10. You cannot be ____careful when you drive a car. a. very b. so c. too d. Enough
11. ―I can‘t praise his work _______‖ George said. ―even though I don‘t like personality.‖ a. sufficiently b. adequately c. enough d. abundantly 12. She puts the bottles _______.
a. every morning on the doorstep carefully b. on the doorstep every morning carefully c. on the doorstep every morning carefully d. every morning carefully on the doorstep 13. This is a ________ easy book. It suits beginners well. a. fairly b. rather c. some d. any
14. This is a ______ easy book. You can learn nothing from it. a. fairly b. rather c. some d. any
15. She wore a _____ surprised expression. a. much b. very c. far d. some 16. This is _______ better. a. very b. fairly c. far d. rather
Lecture 17 Comparison and Comparative Constructions
As has been shown, most adjectives and adverbs are gradable and can be used in comparative clauses. When
appearing in comparative constructions, adjectives and adverbs take special grammatical forms
which are
called ―forms of comparison‖.
17.1 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs (P423-425 Exercise 25A)
单音节词：1. shorter longest grayer 2. later finest （以-e结尾的词，在词尾加-r.-st） 3. bigger fatter
双音节词：1. cleverer narrowest (以-er, -est结尾的词，在词尾加-er,-est) 2.happier earliest （以辅音字母+y结尾的词，变y为i，加-er,-est）3. simpler politest abler (以-ble, -ple, -e结尾的词，在词尾加-r.-st) 4. more hopeful, most quickly （多数双音节词加more, most） 多音节词：more diligent, most happily Exercises
1. She is ______ a musician than her brother. （C）她比她哥哥更具有音乐家的素质。 a. much of b. much as c. more of d. more as
2. On the whole, ambitious students are much likely to succeed in their studies than are those with little ambition. （B – are more likely）总的来说，有远大志向的学生在学业上成功的可能性比没有抱负的学生大。
3. Andrew, my father‘s youngest brother, will not be at the picnic, ______ to the family‘s disappointment. (A) 使全家人非常失望的是， 我父亲最小的弟弟安德鲁将不参加这次野餐。 a. much b. more c. too much d. much more
17.2 Comparative constructions
There are three types of comparative construction as … as construction
Basic pattern: as + adjective / adverb + as
Negative : not as (so) + adjective / adverb + as = less …than (not in common use than the former) 用于形容词或副词原级比较结构前的词语有： exactly, just, nearly, almost, hardly, twice, three times, etc.
exactly/just as big as 与……正好一样大 almost/nearly as wide as 与……几乎一样宽 twice as many as 是……数量的两倍 three times as long as 是……长度的三倍 Exercises
4. Americans eat ________ as they actually need every day. (A) 美国人每天吃的蛋白质相当于他们实际需要量的两倍。
a. twice as much protein b. twice protein as much c. protein as much twice d. protein as much twice
5. The boy students in this school are nearly _____ as the girl students to say they intend to get a college degree in business. (D) 打算取得大学商务专业的学位，该学校的男生这样说的可能性差不多是女生的两倍。
a. as likely twice b. likely as twice c. as twice likely d. twice as likely exceptions
1. There are cases in which the subjects of the comparative and the main clauses are identical but the comparative elements are different..(可表示同一个人或物不同性质的比较，意为―既……又‖)
The girl was as bright as she was beautiful. 这姑娘既漂亮又聪明。
The swimming pool isn‘t as wide as it is long. 这个游泳池长度和宽度不一样。 The news was as unexpected as (it is) welcome. 消息来得突然但受人欢迎。
Note: 同一成分比较才能省略，如：The girl plays the piano as skillfully as she plays the violin. (she plays不能省，因为比较的成分在句中作状语)
2. There are also cases where both the subjects and the comparative elements are different.(还可表示两个人
或物不同性质的比较，表示程度相当，意为―而，则‖)
She is as kind as her brother is honest. 他弟弟很诚实，她则很友善。
He was as experienced as his brother was green. 他经验丰富，而他兄弟却涉世未深。
3. Another pattern of ―as …as‖ construction is ―as much / many + noun + as-clause‖ , in which much and
many are determiners. The negative form of this pattern is ―not as / so much / many + noun + as-clause‖.
You can take as much butter as you need.
She wrote as many essays as her brother (did).
He didn‘t drink as / so much wine as his roommate.
4. There is, in addition, a variant form of ―as… as ‖ construction:
―as + adjective + noun phrase + as-clause‖. It should be noticed that in this variant pattern the embedded
noun phrase is usually ―a / an + singular count noun ‖ or ―zero + non-count noun‖ rather than ―zero + plural
count noun‖ 变体形式中，名词得到强调；用基本形式，形容词得到强调。
George is as efficient a worker as Jack. = George is a worker (who is) as efficient as Jack. I don‘t want as expensive a car as this. = I don‘t want a car as expensive as this. I can‘t drink as sweet coffee as this. = I can‘t drink coffee as sweet as this.
more…than （less…than） construction
1. 用于形容词或副词比较级前面的词语有： 表示―一点儿‖：slightly, a little, a bit, etc.
表示―……得多‖：much, many, a lot, greatly, a great deal., far, etc. 表示―更……‖：even, still, all the
表示确定程度的：two years, ten times, a head, three hours, etc.
A little longer than 比……长一点 far better than 比……好得多 many more than 比……多得多
even more difficult than比……更难 a great deal careful than比……细心得多
ten times more than 数量是……的十倍 two years older than (=older than …by two years) 比……大两岁
a head taller than (= taller than … by a head) 比……高一头
three hours earlier than (earlier than … by three hours) 比……早三小时
Exercises
6. If tap water were as dangerous as some people think _______ would be getting sick. (D) 要是自来水像有些人想象的那么危险的话， 我们当中就会有更多的人生病。 a. a lot of more us b. more a lot of us c. a lot of us more d. a lot more of us
7. You sang well last night. We hope you‘ll sing _______ . (B) 你昨天晚上唱得很好。我们希望你会唱得更好。
a. more better b. still better c. nicely d. best
8. Smoking is so harmful to personal health that it kills _____ people each year than automobile accidents. (B) 吸烟对人体健康非常有害，每年吸烟致死的人数是车祸致死人数的7倍。 a. seven more times b. seven times more c. over seven times d. seven times
2. comparative constructions with special meaning
more A…than B ―与其说B……不如说A‖，表示同一人或物在不同性质上的描绘性对比，并不是肯定一项，否定一项。
He is more brave than wise. 他有勇无谋。
It is more a poem than a picture. 与其说它是一幅画，不如说它是一首诗。
Note: I regard him less as my teacher than as my friend. 我把他看作我的朋友胜过看作是我的老师。
9. ―Anne acts quite unfriendly.‖ ―I think she‘s ______ than unfriendly. ‖（D） 与其说她不友好，倒不如说是腼腆
a. shyer b. shy c. more shy rather d. more shy
not so much … as ―与其说……不如说‖
e.g. They‘re not so much friends as lovers.(= They‘re more lovers than friends.) 与其说他们是朋友， 不如说是情人。
I do not feel so much angry as sad. (=I feel more sad than angry. ) 与其说我感到生气，不如说我感到伤心。
I don‘t so much dislike him as hate him! 与其说我不喜欢他，不如说我恨他！
It isn‘t so much my opinion as hers that matters. 与其说我的意见重要，不如说他的重要。 10. I should say Henry is not _____ much a writer as a reporter. (B) a. that b. so c. this d. as
11. The chief reason for the population growth isn‘t so much a rise in birth rates ____ a fall in death rates as a result of improvements in medical care. (B 人口增长的主要原因与其说是出生率的上升， 不如说是医疗条件的改善导致死亡率的下降。) a. and b. as c. but d. or
12. It wasn‘t so much that I disliked her _____ that I just wasn‘t interested in the whole business.(D)与其说我不喜欢她，不如说我只是对整桩事情不感兴趣。 a. rather b. so c. than d. as
13. It was not so much the many blows he received for the lack of fighting spirit that led to his losing the game. (B-as) 导致他输掉这场比赛的原因，与其说是他所受的这么多打击， 不如说是他缺乏斗争精神。
no + adj./ adv.比较级 + than ―同……一样不‖
no better than = as bad as 同……一样坏 no less than = as much as 同……一样多 no more than = as few/little as 同……一样少 fewer than = as many as 同……一样多 e.g. Tom is no taller than Peter. (=Tom is as short as Peter.) 汤姆和彼得的个子都不高。 He arrived no later than you. (= He arrived as early as you.) 他和你到得一样早。
I am no more capable of speaking English than he is . (=I am as incapable of speaking English as
he is.)我和他都不会说英语。
Note: A is no bigger than B. (= A is as small as B.) A 和B 一样大。 A is not bigger than B. A 不比B大。
14. The heart is _____ intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain. (D) 心脏和胃一样都没有灵性，因为它们都受大脑的控制。 a. not so b. not much c. much more d. no more
15. ―This cake is delicious.‖ ―Well, at least it‘s ________ the one I baked last week.‖(B) 起码跟我上一个星期烤的那块一样好吃。
a. as worse as b. no worse than c. as better than d. not better as
no more…than / not… any more than / no … any more than 意思相同，意为―同……一样不‖或―不……犹如……不……‖
A whale is no more a fish than a horse is. (= A whale is not a fish any more than a horse is.) 鲸和马同样都不是鱼。
I am no more interested in it than you are. (= I am not interested in it any more than you are.) 我和你一样对它都不感兴趣。
They will not change their nature, any more than a leopard will change its spots. 他们的本性不会改变，犹如豹不会改变身上的斑点。
At first glance, it looks as if there is no element of ―present involvement‖ in this use of the Present Perfect, any more than in the Simple Past. 乍看起来，在现在完成时的用法中，似乎跟在一般过去时中一样，都没有―涉及现在‖的因素。
16. There is no reason they should limit how much vitamin you take, ______ they can limit how much water you drink. (D)正如他们没有理由限制你喝多少水一样，他们同样没有理由限制你吃多少维生素。
a. much more than b. no more than c. no less than d. any more than
as much (…) as ―同……一样‖
It is as much our duty as his. 这是他的责任，同样也是我们的责任。 She likes them as much as Paul. 她和保罗一样喜欢他们。
17. Most doctors recognize that medicine is________. (D) 大多数医生承认，医学是一门科学，也是一门艺术。
a. an art as much it is a science b. much an art as it is a science
c. as an art as much it is a science d. as much an art as it is a science
18. Language belongs to each one of us, to the flower-seller _____ to the professor. (A) 语言属于我们每一个人，属于教授，同样也属于卖花人。 a. as much as b. as far as c. the same as d. as long as
Much less/ still less 用于否定句之后，其意思是―更不用说，何况‖
I could barely pay for my own meal, much less hers. 我连自己的饭费都快付不起了，更不用说她的了。
At the age of fourteen I had never even been on a train, much less an aircraft. 14岁我连火车都没坐过，更不要说飞机了。
I wouldn‘t have it, still less pay for it. 我不想要它，更不用说花钱买它了。
He is too shy to ask a stranger the time, still less speak to a room full of people. 他连向陌生人打
听时间都不好意思，更不要说向一屋子人讲话了。
19. Indeed, almost every scientist now finds it impossible to read all the works relevant to his own subject. (B)
事实上，几乎所有科学家都发现，现在连与自己的学科相关的著作都读不完，更不用说去广泛阅读自己学科之外的东西了。
a. much more to read b. much less to read c. much less reading d. still more reading
20. He knows little of mathematics, and ________ of chemistry. (B) 他对数学几乎一无所知，更谈不上化学了。
a. even more b. still less c. no less d. still more
用作前置修饰语的as…as, more than, no more than, less than，修饰名词、形容词、动词等： As many as three hundred people were present at the meeting.出席会议的有300人之多。 We will be more than happy(=very happy) to help you. 我们会很高兴帮助你。 He is no more than a child. 他不过是个孩子。
There used to be a type of camel no larger than a dog. 过去有一种只有狗那么大的骆驼。 The children were less than happy about having a party. 孩子们对举行聚会并不那么开心。 He was regarded as nothing more than (=only) an amateur. 他仅仅被看作是一名业余爱好者。 21. The individual TV viewer invariably senses that he or she is ______ an anonymous, statistically insignificant part of a huge and diverse audience. (D) 在大量形形色色的观众中，每一个个体的电视观众都感到自己不过是其中一个匿名的部分，从统计角度来看，不过是微不足道的一部分。
a. everything except b. anything but c. no less than d. nothing more than
22. The population of many Alaskan cities has _____doubled in the past three years. (B) 在过去三年中，阿拉斯加的许多城市的人口已经翻了一番多。 a. larger than b. more than c. as great as d. as many as the more … the more (refer to P437)
(the ) + superlative adjective /adverb + scope of comparison
修饰形容词或副词最高级的词语有：by far, the second, the third等。 by far the finest weather 最好的天气 the third largest company第三大公司 最优等比较：the + 最高级 +表示比较范围的成分 It is the best novel I‘ve ever read.
最劣等比较：the + least + 原级 + 表示比较范围的成分 It is the least useful book I‘ve ever bought. He is the least careful in his class. Mike runs (the) least fast of the three.
Note: 形容词最高级前不加定冠词，表示有一定限度的―最高‖。
New York Harbor is loveliest at night perhaps. 纽约港也许在晚上最迷人。 The stars are brightest when there is no moon. 没有月亮时星星最明亮。 形容词最高级前加不定冠词，表示―非常‖的含义。 He is a most brave man. 他是个极勇敢的人。
Lecture 18 Statement, Question, Command, Exclamation
18.1 Four types of sentences
statement ｛ positive statements ; negative statements｝
question ｛general questions ; special questions ; alternative questions ; tag questions｝ command ｛imperative sentences｝ exclamation｛exclamatory sentences｝
18.2 Tag questions Types of tag questions
Tag questions are extensively used in spoken language.
A tag question generally consists of two parts: statement + question tag. The subject and verb in the question tag generally correspond with those in the statement. Five types of tag question:
positive statement + negative tag negative statement + positive tag positive statement + positive tag negative statement + negative tag imperative sentence + question tag
Of these five types, the first two are far more frequently used. The last one is commonly used to soften the imperative tone.
That clock is slow, isn‘t it ? That clock isn‘t slow, is it ? That clock is slow, is it ? That clock isn‘t slow, isn‘t it ? Carry this parcel for me, will you?
a few points concerning the formation of question tags 1. 陈述句谓语动词为have ―有‖（两种形式）：
He hasn‘t any sisters, has he / does he ？
She doesn‘t have a lot of money to spare (afford to give), does she？（不可用has she, 因为前面用的是 doesn‘t）
―经历，遭受，得到，吃‖(只用do的适当形式)： You all had a good time, didn‘t you ? He often has colds, doesn‘t he ?
They had milk and bread for breakfast, didn‘t they ? have to , had to (只用do的适当形式)：
We have to get there at eight tomorrow, don‘t we ? They had to take the early train, didn‘t they ?
2. 陈述句谓语动词为系动词、助动词、情态助动词，疑问部分重复这些动词, 若带有否定意义的词语，视为否定句，反意部分用肯定 He is a teacher, isn‘t he ?
There won‘t be any concert this Saturday evening, will there ？ Mountains can be very dangerous, can‘t they ?
Under no circumstances will she return home, will she ?
―I am very busy, aren‘t I ？ (通常用aren‘t I，不正式的口语中大量用ain‘t I )‖ I am not late, am I ?
3. need, dare 既可作情态动词， 又可作行为动词, 注意区别。 You needn‘t hand in your paper, need you ? He doesn‘t need to go there, does he ？ He dare do it, daren‘t he ?
He doesn‘t dare to ask the teacher, does he ?
4．陈述句谓语动词部分含有used to (两种形式) He used to get up early, usedn‘t he / didn‘t he ?
Note : There used to be peach tree in the garden, wasn‘t there?
5. 陈述句谓语动词含有had better, would rather, would like, (注意区别简略形式 ‗d) You‘d better go now, hadn‘t you ?
You‘d rather go there early, wouldn‘t you ? He‘d like to go, wouldn‘t he ?
6. 陈述句谓语动词有表示愿望的wish时， 反意疑问用may, 而且前后两个部分均用肯定式 I wish to go home now, may I ?
7. 陈述句中的主语为this, that, everything, anything, something, nothing等时，反意疑问句的主语用it
Everything is all right, isn‘t it ? Nothing can stop us now, can it ? This isn‘t a very fast train, is it ?
8. 陈述句中的主语为 anybody, anyone, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, nobody, no one, these, those 等时， 反意疑问句中的主语用they Everyone knows the answer, don‘t they ?
Nobody says a word about the incident, do they ? No one wants to go, do they ?
These tools are very useful, aren‘t they?
Note: one 可用you（非正式场合）或one（正式场合）. One can be one‘s own master, can‘t you / one ?
9. 陈述部分有ought to, must, may(might) 时，反意疑问部分助动词根据情况作出选择 She ought to go by plane, shouldn‘t she ? (oughtn‘t she ? ) (BrE) ought we not ?(should we not) (AmE)
Such things ought not to be allowed, ought they?
You must study hard , needn‘t you? (must showing necessity) You mustn‘t smoke here, must you ?(must showing prohibition)
The student must be working very hard, isn‘t he ? Judging by the smell, the food must be good, isn‘t it ?
They must have told him that, haven‘t they ? She must have arrived by air, hasn‘t she ?
You must have seen the film last night, didn‘t you ?
I may come and borrow the book tomorrow, mayn‘t I ?
The experience may have been long in your memory, mayn‘t it ? Then he mightn‘t have heard from you, might he ?
You might bring me some paper, will you ? (偶尔用will 表示请求) 10. 祈使句的反意疑问句一般只用肯定式，有下列几种情况：
1) 附加部分视说话人语气而定，可用will you, won‘t you, would you, wouldn‘t you, can you, can‘t you
Keep calm, please, will you ?
Keep calm, will you please ? (语气更委婉) Do what you are told, will you ?
Give me some more tea, would you ? (语气更委婉) Have a cup of tea, won‘t you ? (表示建议)
Give me a hand, can / can‘t you ? （请求帮助） Wait for the next train, why don‘t you ? (表示建议) Don‘t do that again, will you ? （其他项也可用）
2）如果祈使句以let‘s 开头， 附加疑问句则用shall we Let‘s take a taxi, shall we / shan‘t we ? Let‘s not go there, shall we?
3) 如果祈使句以let us 开头， 意义上相当于allow us, 意味着不包括听话人在内，附加疑问句则用will you
Let us enter the room, will you ? 请让我们进去，好吗？
Let us do that without your help, will you ? 让我们自己做，不要你帮忙，好吗？ 4）以let me 开头的祈使句，反意疑问句可用will you 或用may I Let me do it for you, may I ? Let me have a rest, will you ?
Note : 祈使句的反意疑问句多用升调，但也可用降调表示命令口吻。 11. 感叹句的反意疑问句一律用否定式，而且要用be 的一般现在时
主语是人时，用he 或you 等人称代词；主语是物时用it, 这类反意疑问句多用升调。 What a lovely day, isn‘t it ? What a stupid fellow, isn‘t he ? How cool the water is, isn‘t it？
12. 陈述句主语为each of … 结构时，反意疑问句主语用he, she或it 时强调―各个，各自‖，用we, you 或they 时强调―全体‖
Each of these novels is to be discussed this term, isn‘t it ?
Each of us have got the prize, haven‘t we ? 13. none of… 结构作主语时，反意疑问句谓语动词的数和人称必须同前面陈述部分的谓语动词一致。
None of his friends is interested, is he ? None of his friends are interested, are they ? None of his friends has come, has he ?
14. 陈述句主语为such时，反意疑问句的主语单数用it, 复数用they Such is his trick, isn‘t it ?
Such are your excuses, aren‘t they ?
15. neither…nor 也有反意疑问句，要用肯定式 He can neither read nor write, can he ?
The book is neither in Chinese nor in English, is it ? 16. 含有宾语从句的主从复合句的反意疑问句
若陈述句为I think, believe, suppose, figure, assume, fancy, imagine, reckon, expect, seem, feel等 + 宾语从句，反意疑问句的谓语动词和主语应同从句部分保持一致，如果主句是否定式，反意疑问句要用肯定式。若主句主语为其他人称，反意疑问句的谓语动词和主语代词一般同主句部分保持一致。
I don‘t think he can finish the work, can he ? I don‘t believe she knows it, does she ? I suppose Henry‘s singing, isn‘t he ?
Mary thinks you‘ll come to the meeting, doesn‘t she ? He never said she would come, did he ?
You never told us why you were late for the last meeting, did you? Note: 在 ―It doesn‘t seem that + 句子‖ 等类似结构中，反意疑问句的主语和谓语要同从句的主语和谓语保持一致。
It doesn‘t seem that he can get it, can he ?
It seems that he is the right person for the job, isn‘t he ?
17．含有主语从句和表语从句的主从复合句的反意疑问句
如果主语从句或表语从句由whether, if, who, what, which, where, how, when 等 引导， 反意疑问句应对应于主句； 但如果主语是从句形式（主语从句）， 反意疑问句的主语要用it What he lacks is courage, isn‘t it ?
How you will handle the matter is for you to decide, isn‘t it ? That‘s where you are wrong, isn‘t it ?
Things were not as you imagined, were they ?
It isn‘t surprising that he was the only man qualified for the job, is it ?
18．一些附加疑问句不是反意，句子的陈述部分与疑问同是肯定或同是否定，这类句子多出现在对话中，一般无需回答，它们通常带有感情色彩，表示强调、关心、惊奇、怀疑、愤怒等，这类附加疑问句的构成比较随意。 A: You are stupid. You‘ve made a mess of it.
B: So I‘ve made a mess of it, have I ? (我把事情弄糟了，是吧？表惊奇、愤怒)
A: We haven‘t a chance in a million. (我们完全没有机会了)
B: Oh, we haven‘t a chance in a million, haven‘t we? (没有机会了，是吗？表讽刺、怀疑)
Pupil: Did I pass?
Teacher: No, I‘m afraid you failed.
Pupil: I failed, did I ? What a shame! (没及格，是吗？好丢人哪！表失望)
A: Richard tore up his book. (把书撕了)
B: Oh, he did, did he? （噢，他把书撕了，是吗?(表不赞同)）
19．有时所谓的附加疑问句相当于一个插入语。
Darling, you will forever be with me , won‘t you, in the years to come?
20. 其他
You and I drew the plan, didn‘t we?
Whisky and soda sells well here, doesn‘t it ?
The love and care she gets from her husband is intense, isn‘t it ?
18.3 Exercises （画龙点睛学英语•潘继福） 1. You and I did it together, _______ ?
a. didn‘t you b. didn‘t I c. didn‘t we d. did you 2. She may do it if she wants to, ______?
a. can she b. mayn‘t she c. doesn‘t she d. shan‘t she
3. Peter oughtn‘t to have done it in the first place, _______? a. hasn‘t b. didn‘t he c. oughtn‘t he d. ought he 4. They never said he would come, ________?
a. didn‘t they b. did they c. wouldn‘t he d. would he 5. What beautiful weather, _________? a. is it b. isn‘t it c. will it d. won‘t it
6. When the teacher speaks, we have to keep quiet, _______? a. don‘t we b. mustn‗t we c. haven‘t we d. doesn‘t he 7. Let‘s do it together, _____?
a. shall we b. will we c. need we d. can we 8. Stephen: You must do as you are told. Winston: Oh, I must, ________?
a. should I b. must I c. mustn‘t I d. shouldn‘t I 9. Peter: You shan‘t do what you wish. Brian: Oh, I won‘t, ________?
a. shan‘t I b. shall I c. won‘t I d. will I
10. I am the only person who is to blame, ______? a. ain‘t I b. aren‘t I c. isn‘t I d. am I not 11. You‘d better come tomorrow, _______?
a. didn‘t you b. shouldn‘t you c. wouldn‘t you d. hadn‘t you 12. you‘d rather be there early, ______?
a. hadn‘t you b. shouldn‘t you c. wouldn‘t you d. didn‘t you 13. Janet used to live in Happy Valley, _________? a. used she b. used she not c. didn‘t she d. did she
14. Everyone hopes to get promoted, _______? a. doesn‘t he b. do they c. hasn‘t he d. haven‘t they 15. No one is interested in that, ________? a. is he b. was he c. isn‘t he d. weren‘t they 16. Nothing is available here, _______? a. is it b. isn‘t it c. are they d. aren‘t they 17. I wish to go home now, ______? a. may I b. would I c. can I d. wish I
18. Clever boys need never work very hard, ______? a. needn‘t they b. need they c. don‘t they d. do they 19. You‘d rather not do it, ________?
a. should you b. wouldn‘t you c. would you d. must you 20. I suppose you are not serious, ______? a. don‘t I b. do I c. are you d. aren‘t you 21. You need the job, ______?
a. do you b. don‘t you c. need you d. needn‘t you 22. You needn‘t do it, ______?
a. do you b. don‘t you c. need you d. needn‘t you 23. She must be in the classroom, ________? a. must she b. mustn‘t she c. is she d. isn‘t she 24. You must leave here now, _________?
a. must you b. mustn‘t you c. are you d. aren‘t you 25. That‘s wonderful, _____?
a. isn‘t it b. isn‘t that c. isn‘t this d. isn‘t they 26. Alice daren‘t do it, _______?
a. is she b. dare she c. dares she d. will she
27. We never dared to ask him questions, ________? a. did we b. didn‘t we c. dared we d. daredn‘t we
28. There is not much news in today‘s paper, ______? a. isn‘t it b. are there c. is there d. aren‘t there
29. Mary keeps talking about the party; she had a very good time, ________? a. hadn‘t she b. had she c. didn‘t she d. weren‘t she 30. She ought to go by plane, ________?
a. should she b. would she c. shouldn‘t she d. wouldn‘t she
Lecture 19 Preposition and Prepositional Phrase
English today is basically an analytic language in which inflections have practically been replaced by structural words and a relatively fixed word order. Prepositions are just a class of structural words that indicate various semantic relations between words or expressions. 19.1 Collocation of prepositions with adjectives, verbs and nouns Prepositions after adjectives
Adjectives can collocate with prepositions to form adjective phrases. Some adjectives can only be followed by specific prepositions (e.g. rich in, intent on, indifferent to), but there are other adjectives that can collocate with different prepositions to express different meanings (e.g. alive to — having full knowledge of; alive with —covered with living things). There are also adjectives that can be followed by different prepositions being determined by the complementation that follows, e.g.
He is intent on going to France to continue his studies.他一心想去法国继续深造。
He was alive to the dangers of the work. 他十分清楚这项工作的危险性。 The dead tree is alive with insects.那棵枯树上爬满了各种昆虫。
Joe was very disappointed at not finding her at home.(指事)
His parents will be disappointed with her if she fails the exam.（指人） Prepositions after verbs
Combinations of prepositions with verbs fall into the following types: Verb + preposition : prevail on, appeal to, apply for
He fell into the habit of not attending to other people‘s advice. 他养成了不听别人建议的习惯。 Verb + object + preposition: exclude… from, take… for
It should be noticed that these combinations are different from such multi-word verbs as take pity on, take advantage of, etc. In the case of multi-word verbs, the object is an integral part of the whole, while in such combinations as exclude…from, the object is not a fixed item and admits of substitution.
They excluded him from the club. 他们拒绝他加入俱乐部。（宾语不是固定）
Note : The report lays great emphasis on the development of nursery schools in the area. (宾语不可改变)
Verb + adverb particle（副词小品词） + preposition: break in on, come up against, hold out on, get off with, put down to
You are not telling me the whole story. You‘re holding out on me. (对……保密)
Verb + object + adverb particle + preposition: take one‘s resentment out on, put something over on You must watch that guy, or he‘ll put something over on you before you know it.(捉弄) Collocation of prepositions with nouns
These collocations may be described in two ways: Noun + preposition
There are nouns that are usually followed by certain prepositions, e.g. a solution to, faith in, a glance at, need for
Have you any faith in herb medicine? Preposition + noun
There are also nouns that are usually preceded by certain prepositions, e.g. on one‘s guard, at one‘s request, in all probability, to one‘s delight
A young man should be on his guard against bad company. (提防) 19.2 Complex prepositions
Complex prepositions, also known as ―multi-word prepositions‖, refer to combinations that consist of two or more than two words and which perform the function of simple prepositions. In terms of word-formation, complex prepositions can be divided into: Two-word prepositions
according to except for ahead of instead of apropos of irrespective of as to next to because of owing to but for previous(ly) to care of regardless of devoid of thanks to due to what with Three-word prepositions
at variance with in spite of by arrangement with on account of by way of on / under pain of for fear of on top of for lack of under cover of in addition to under / on (the) pretence of in case of with reference to in terms of with respect to in view of without prejudice to Four-word prepositions
at the expense of at the mercy of at the rate of on the ground(s) of on the part of on the point of for the purpose of for the sake of to the exclusion of to the prejudice of under the guise of in the care of in the event of with a view to with an eye to with the exception of on the brink of on the basis of
19.3 Transformational relations between prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses
Prepositional phrases, which are chiefly used as adverbials in clauses and as modifiers in noun phrases, have transformational relations with some subordinate clauses that perform the same syntactic functions.
Prepositional phrase vs that-clause
In some contexts, a prepositional phrase can be transformed into a corresponding that-clause, e.g. Are you sure of Simon‘s disappearance ?= Are you sure that Simon has disappeared? Prepositional phrase vs adverbial clause
Sometimes, a prepositional phrase is interchangeable with an adverbial clause, e.g. Despite the city‘s many attractions, Johnny still preferred his cottage in the country.= Although the city has many attractions, Johnny still preferred his cottage in the country. Prepositional phrase vs relative clause
When a prepositional phrase is used as postmodifier in a noun phrase, it can sometimes be turned into a relative clause, e.g.
The man with a red beard is talking to Henry‘s father.= The man who has a red beard is talking to Henry‘s father.
19.4 Exercises TB 26A-H
Lecture 20 Coordination
20.1 Types of coordinate constructions Formation of coordinate constructions
⒈simple coordination : 指单一语法成分的并列
分句：I am only 63, but I feel a hundred. I didn‘t know who she was, or what she wanted.
谓语：Peter ate the fruit and drank the beer. You must take the course and pass the examination. 状语或宾语：They ran across the field and past the farmhouse. I‘ll give you a nice cup of tea and a ginger biscuit.(姜饼干) 单词：We see them on their way to and from school.
We are blessed by having known and loved a man of such goodness and wisdom.
⒉complex coordination : 指两个语法成分结合的并列，其可是两个相邻成分—— 直接宾语和间接宾语：My mother bought a shirt for me, and a hat for my brother. 宾语和宾语补语：We named the boy Allen and the girl Betty.
宾语和状语：She put the books on the desk and the clothes on the bed. 状语和状语：He went to this city in May and to that city in June.
谓语和状语/ 宾语：In summer, many people go to the seaside and bathe in the sea. He took off his uniform and put on his cloth.
The baby crawled into the room and overturned every object.
也可是两个非相邻成分——也可看作省略谓语的分句并列，即简单并列： 主语和宾语： Diana plays the piano, and Sandy ( ) the violin.
主语和状语： Albert studied law at this college, and Allen ( ) at that college. 主语和主语补语：Hans looks happy, and Heyward ( ) sad.
Coordinating devices
A coordinate construction is formed with coordinating devices including coordinators and some punctuation marks. 1. 逗号：（SB P506） 句中的并列词语原本用逗号相隔，再以并列连词相连，但若某并列词语中间有插入语时，会多出一些逗号。为了句意清楚起见，可用分号取代逗号。
He said that he had no money, that he had no friends to count on, and that he expected me to help him. 句中有三个that 从句， 以and 连接，称为并列从句，用逗号相隔。现在要在句中加入插入语，请注意标点符号的变化：
He said that he had no money；that, because of his ill temper, he had no friends to count on ; and that he expected me to help him.(用分号置于并列that 从句之前，很容易看出三个从句的并列关系)
2. 破折号：He is versatile — he masters five different languages and plays the piano very well. 3. 冒号：He has finally made his goal known to us : he wants to be a scientist. 4. 分号 = 逗号+连词（and, so, but）：He is nice ; quite often he is seen helping others. He is a man of principle ; we all respect him.= He is a man of principle, so we all respect him He is a photographer ; quite often he travels abroad to take pictures.
= He is a photographer, and quite often he travels abroad to take pictures.
He is nice ; none likes him, though.= He is nice, but none likes him.
20.2 Coordinators semantically considered ⒈Coordinations and coordinations phrases: and→ both ... and
or →either... or neither... nor but →not ... but
not only... but also(=not merely ... but also ; not just... but also ; not only... but...as well) 单词：Both Peter and Mary work hard. He is not kind but cruel. He will either stay or leave.
短语：He went to the United States not only to learn English but also to know more American culture.
He succeeded both because of his intelligence and because of his hard work.
从句：He succeeded both because he was intelligent and because he worked hard. Not only can she sing, but she can (also) dance.
Note : 其中的also 通常可以省略。若不省略，则连接单词或短语时but also 不可分开，但连接主句时， but also 一定要分开，也就是将also 置于主语之后。 She is not only beautiful but (also) kind.
She is interested not only in music but (also) in art. Not only can she dance, but she can (also) sing.
2. 其他可视为并列连词的短语：as well as...以及…… rather than... 而非……etc. You as well as (=together with ; along with) John like it. Note : He together with me is interested in music.
He came here to learn English as well as to know more about life.
I love her because she is intelligent as well as because she is considerate. He is happy rather than sad.
He rather than I is interested in music.= He instead of me is interested in music. (He not I, is interested in music.)
He is interested in music rather than in painting.
He failed because he was lazy rather than because he was not intelligent.
I like this book rather than one. = I like this book, not that one. (not 前必须有逗号)
Note : 连接主语时，both...and... 之后，始终接复数动词；其余连词连接主语时，动词则要随最近的主语变化。
Both he and I are happy about it. Either he or I am wrong.
Neither you nor he is to blame.
Not he but I am to be responsible for it.
Not only they but also John has passed the exam. Is not only he but also I wrong ?
Lecture 21 Subordination
21.1 Coordination and subordination
Subordination means putting a grammatical unit in a lower rank or position. A grammatical unit that functions as a constituent of another unit of equal or lower rank of structure is called a subordinate construction, which might be a finite clause, a non-finite clause, a verbless clause, or a phrase. Subordination establishes a kind of relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other. Subordinators
Subordinate clauses are generally introduced by subordinators, which, in terms of word formation, can be classified into simple subordinators, complex subordinators, correlative subordinators and marginal subordinators.
1. Simple subordinators——―one-word subordinators‖
She returned immediately (BrE= as soon as) she heard the good news. Immediately they entered Andrew‘s eyes lit up.
The policemen went into action directly (BrE colloq. = as soon as ) they heard the alarm. Directly I had done it, I knew I had made a mistake.
One of them called the other a liar, whereupon (conj.fml after which) a fight broke out.
He acts like (nonstandard= as if) he owns the place.
Like I said (repeating something you have already said), we'll be there around ten. I don't want you to turn out like (in the same way as) your father. c.f. I'd love a car like (prep.) yours.
2. Complex subordinators—— ―multi-word subordinators‖ composed of two or more words. Some of these end in ―that‖.
Assuming (that) Dad agrees, when do you want to shop for cars? She did very well considering (that) it was her first attempt.
She's guilty, inasmuch as (因为，由于)she knew what the other girls were planning to do.她也是有罪的，因为她知道其他的女孩子们当时在计划什么。
For all that (=in spite of the fact that ) she has a good sense of balance, she can‘t dance well. c.f. For all (=in spite of ) his expensive education, Leo doesn't know very much.
He‘s mean and bad-tempered and snores(打呼噜), but she loves him for all that (=in spite of everything he does).
Given that (conj. fml.如果，假如) she is interested in children, I am sure teaching is the right career for her. c.f.
Given（过去分词，如果有……，如果给予……）good weather（这是一个逻辑主语在分词后的独立结构）, our ship will reach Shanghai tomorrow.
Given（prep. in view of 由于，考虑到，鉴于） the present conditions, I think she‘s done rather
well. 考虑到目前的情况，我认为她干成这样就不错了。
granted 和 granting 不看作分词，虽形式不同，但语义一样，表示让步关系（尽管，即使），不表示条件。
Granting (that) you are right, you should not treat her that way.
Granted that he has enough money to buy the house, it doesn‘t mean he‘s going to do so.
I prefer his plan to yours, in that I think it is more practical.我喜欢他的计划，而不喜欢你的计划，因为我认为他的计划更切实可行。
Theory is valuable in that it can provide a direction for practice. 理论之所以有价值，是因为它能为实践指出方向。
Advertising is distinguished from other forms of communication in that (in this respect在……方面)the advertiser pays for the message to be delivered.
Men differ from brutes in that they can think and speak. 人与兽不同之处，在于人能够思维和说话。
in so far as （BrE,fml）= insofar as (AmE) = in that ; to the extent that (就……而言，在……程度上)
He can be trusted in so far as he has never yet told a lie. 他是可以信任的，因为他从未说过谎。 He is a Russian in so far as he was born in Russia, but he became a French citizen in 1920. 就他出生于俄国而言，他是个俄国人，但他在1920年入了法国籍。 I‘ll help you in so far as I can. 我将尽力帮助你。
Insofar as schools teach perceptual patterns they tend to destroy creativity and genius.由于学校教的是感性的模式，它们往往会摧毁学生的创造性和才能。 Insofar as sales are concerned, the company is doing very well.
Talks will take place in July, provided that enough progress has been made. (used in order to say that something will only happen if another thing happens first ) You can borrow the car, providing that I have it back by six o'clock.
I agree with you , save (except,fml) that you have got one or two facts wrong. 除了你有一两点是错的之外，我同意你的看法。
You can stay out later tonight, seeing (that) (相当于as, since用于正式语体，由于，鉴于) it's Friday.
Suppose / supposing (used in order to ask someone to imagine what might happen) you do get the job. Who'd take care of the kids?
3. Correlative subordinators (从属关联词)——composed of two correlative words
just as… so (= as… so) as 或just as 引导从句，so引导主句, so主句中的主语和谓语既可倒装，也可不倒装，后者用得更普遍。意为―正如……一样，……也……‖。 Just as the soil is a part of the earth, so is the atmosphere.
As a man sows, so he shall reap.（so shall he reap） 种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。 As you brew (酿酒), so shall you drink. 自作自受。
4. Marginal subordinators(边际从属连词)——some free lexical combinations, hard to distinguish from complex subordinators.
The experiment was a success in the sense that we got the results we were looking for.(used in order to say that something you have just said is true in a particular way)
The highway has been closed in light of （AmE）heavy snow.( 根据，按照，由于considering) I wanted to hold the meeting today, but in the light of (BrE)the changed circumstances it had better be postponed.
21.2 Subordinate clauses
structurally, subordinate clauses →finite, non-finite, or verbless 1.finite→(syntactically) nominal, relative, and adverbial clauses
nominal clauses→ ―noun clauses‖ function as subject, object, subject complement, appositive, and prepositional complementation.
It is quite clear that the crime was done deliberately. I can‘t imagine what made him behave like that. The mystery is whether he ever went there at all.
My original question, why he did it at all, has not yet been answered. You must give it back to whoever it belongs to.
adverbial clauses → time, place, manner, cause, result, purpose, condition, and concession（详细阅读ST P527-538）
He had overslept, so that he was late for work.( result, 只能在句尾)
So that he could be heard in every room, John spoke through a microphone. (purpose, 句首句尾均可)
2. non-finite clauses→ infinitive clause, -ing participle clause, -ed participle clause infinitive clause (adverbial of purpose, result, cause) I hope to be able to come.(without expressed subject)
The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.( with expressed subject) He knew that with him to help, she could and would succeed.
Rather than you do the job, I prefer to finish it myself.(rather than近似并列连词，放在句首不带to, 其它位置，视情况而定)
He opened his lips as if to say something.(introduced by subordinator) I don‘t know what to do.
-ing participle clause (subject, object, and subject/object complement ; adverbials of time, cause, or condition)
He denied having been there. (without expressed subject or subordinator) I have a friend living in London.
Beating a child will do more harm than good. Judging from what you say, he has done his best.
When sleeping, I never hear a thing. (introduced by subordinator) My parents object to my/me going out alone. ( with expressed subject)
-ed participle clause ( premodifier, subject/ object complement, postmodifier, adverbial)
Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room. (without expressed subject or subordinator) Once published, the book caused a remarkable stir.(with a subordinator) The job finished, we went home straight away.(with expressed subject)
3. verbless clauses (SVC句型)→ without subordinator, with subordinator, with expressed subject(带有自己的主语,another kind of ―absolute construction‖) Right or wrong, I have given him a piece of mind.
An excellent speaker, he was never at a loss for a word.
Whatever the reason, his cordiality(真诚) has won him a friend. (subordinator + noun phrase) Although very helpful, he was not much liked by people.( subordinator + adj. phrase) When in Rome, do as the Romans do.( subordinator + prep. phrase) He spoke ungraciously, if not rudely.( subordinator + adverb phrase)
Two hundred people died in the accident, many of them children. (noun phrase + noun phrase) There he stood, a tray in hand. (noun phrase + prepositional phrase)
Breakfast over, he went to his counting house. (noun phrase + adverb phrase)
Miriam looked at Harry, his eyes full of doubt and discomfort.(noun phrase + adjective phrase)
21.3 ―Absolute constructions‖(ST P564-567)
What is traditionally called ―absolute construction‖ is essentially a non-finite or verbless clause with an expressed subject of its own.
22． 形容词从句 Adjective Clauses
形容词从句是在句中起形容词作用的主谓结构，通常修饰它前面的名词或代词， 即它的先行词。形容词从句也称为定语从句(attributive clauses) 或关系从句（relative clauses）。
1 限制性和非限制性形容词从句 （restrictive and nonrestrictive） 1.1 定义:
先请看两个句子：
--Is that the woman who wants to buy your car? (是那个女的要买你的车吗？) --I‘ve just met Mrs. Smith-Perkins, who wants to buy your car. (我刚才碰见史密斯-珀金斯夫人，她要买你的车。)
在第一句里，形容词从句 who wants to buy your car指明了是哪个女人，对先行词woman起限制作
用，这就是限制性形容词从句。这样的形容词从句不能随便省略，因为省略之后句意多半不完整。
比如说，如果有人问: ―Is that the woman?‖听者很可能会感到莫名其妙, 不知道指的是哪个女人。但
在第二句里，即使省略斜体部分，听者也很可能知道说的是哪一位史密斯-珀金斯夫人，也就是说形
容词从句who wants to buy your car只是对先行词作进一步说明作为补充而已，对先行词不起限制
作用，这就是非限制性形容词从句。
1.2 限制性和非限制性形容词从句在意义上的不同：
同一个先行词选择用限制性形容词从句还是非限制性从句修饰，在意义上有时没有什么区别，有时
却会有很明显的区别，例如：
--The travelers who knew about the floods took another road. （知道涨大水的旅客走了另一条路。）指部分旅客，从句对旅客作了限制。 --The travelers, who knew about the floods, took another road. （旅客都知道涨大水了，他们走了另一条路。）指全部旅客，从句对旅客只是作补充说明，没有限 制。
1.3 限制性和非限制性形容词从句在形式上的不同：
限制性和非限制性形容词从句在形式上有非常明显的区别：限制性形容词从句一般不以任何方式与
句子的其他部分隔开，讲话的时候也没有停顿，书写时不用逗号。而非限制性形容词从句则经常与
句子的其他部分隔开，讲话时有停顿（或是改变语调），书写时也要用逗号。请再比较下面的句 子：
--Where‘s the money (that) I lent you? (限制性形容词从句) （我借给你的钱到哪去了？）
--He lent me a thousand pounds, which was exactly the amount I needed to solve my problem. (非限制性形容词从句) (他借给我一千英镑，这笔钱正好可以解决我的问题。） 如果非限制性从句位于主句之中，则把从句和主句用逗号分开，如：
--The treatment, which is being tried by researchers at four hospitals, has helped patients who have failed to respond to other remedies.
1.4 限制性和非限制性形容词从句在文体上的区别：
因为非限制性形容词从句往往显得冗长，正式, 所以常用在书面语中, 口语中很少用。
1.5 限制性和非限制性形容词从句在语法上的区别：
这两类形容词从句的区别已不仅仅是用不用逗号隔开的问题，两者之间还有着重要的语法区别。
a. 两种从句中关系代词的用法不同
1）非限制性形容词从句不能用that作关系代词。详见19.2.4 that, which的互换和不可互换。 2）非限制性从句用which作关系代词时有时可以代替前面的整个句子，参见19.6。 3）非限制性形容词从句中的关系代词都不能省略，而在限制性从句中，关系代词that, which, whom有时可以省略。详见19.3中that, which, whom的省略。 b. 由先行词来决定形容词从句的性质
1）一个先行词（名词）如果已由其他修饰语作了完整的表述，就不再用限制性形容词从句修饰，
但可以用非限制性形容词从句来做补充说明。例如我们不能说： --*My house which I bought last year has got a lovely garden. 因为名词house已经有了一个代词修饰语my，它就不能再用一个限制性形容词从句来修饰。这个
句子应该改为
--My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden. 或者保留限制性形容词从句但去掉代词修饰语，即： --The house which I bought last year has got a lovely garden. 2）某些先行词只能跟限制性形容词从句 非限制性从句的先行词通常不能是代词，而限制性的形容词从句的先行词可以是（或者含有）
any,
all, every, some, many, much, no(body), several, those等非特指的限定词，甚至还可以是人称代词
he, she, we（这种用法仅限于正式英语和旧式英语中）。例如： --In theory anyone who lives or works in the area may be at risk. --All the students who had failed the test, wanted to try again.
--Every book that is written to deceive the reader should be banned.
--Someone who knows the area, but whose home is outside it, is more likely to be a successful representative.
--Much that has been said tonight will soon be forgotten. --Nobody who/that watched the match will ever forget it.
--The journey was a disappointment to those who would have preferred to travel by road.
--He who helps the handicapped deserves our support.
… we who are supposed to be so good at talking and writing. 注意，代词you, they, it一般都不能作先行词。不能说*They who work hard deserve some reward. 而一般改为Those who work…
也不能说*It that stands over there is a church. 可以改为 What stands over there is a church. 偶 见you后接非限制性形容词从句，如： --You, to whom I owe all my happiness, … 3) 某些先行词只能跟非限制性形容词从句 当先行词是表示通常的―独一无二‖的含义时，一般只能用非限制性形容词从句来修饰。例如： --Dr Brown, who lives next door, comes from Australia.
而当专有名词临时呈现普通名词的特点，不是独一无二时，可接各类限制性修饰语。如： --Do you mean the Memphis which used to be the capital of Egypt, or the Memphis in Tennessee?
c. 某些句型中只可能出现限制性形容词从句
1）在强调句型：―it + be + 名词/ 代词 + that/ who从句‖ 中的从句只可能是限制性的形容词从句。
--It was she who initiated divorce proceedings. --It was Ann that I saw.
--It‘s I who am responsible for the organization. --It is they who are complaining.
2）在there be句型中出现的形容词从句也只能是限制性的。注意该句型中的关系代词常省略。如：
--There are three reasons why we should support this action. --In fact there are some strategies which are much more reliable. --Is there anything you want to tell me? 用此句型强调一个否定成分特别常见：
--There‘s nothing (that/which) I can do about it.
--There was no way (in which) they could persuade her to try again.
2 形容词从句中的关系词：形容词从句的关系词同时兼有两个功能，一是它们像其他副词或
代词一样，要在从句中作状语或是作从句动词的主语或宾语或其它成分，另外它们又像其他连接词一样，把主句和从句连接起来。 请看例句：
--What‘s the name of the blonde girl who just came in? 句中who just came in是形容词从句，who是关系代词，它代替the blonde girl成为动词came的主语，同时它又把主句和从句连接成一个句子。 所以理解形容词从句中的关系词就是要明白：一它代替主句中的哪个部分，二它在从句中充当什么成分。
这样下面的错误就能避免了：
--*This is the house that my father lived for thirty years. 应该改为 This is the house where/ in which my father lived for thirty years. 因为关系词代替的是主句中的the house，但在从句中充当
的是状语，所以不能用that，改为where 或in which。
形容词从句的关系词一般分为这样两类：关系代词和关系副词。
2.1 关系代词:
包括代人的who, whom，whose, 代物的which以及既可以代人也可以代物的that。关系代词在限制
性和非限制性形容词从句中的具体用法可参见下表：（请注意关系代词在限制性和非限制性形容词
从句中的不同之处）
限制性 非限制性 代人 代物 代人 代物
主格 who; that which; that who which
宾格 whom; that; zero which; that; zero whom 所有格 whose
zero 是指关系代词省略的情况。具体参见19.3 that, which的省略以及19.2.5 whom的具体用法。
请注意关系代词无阳性、阴性或复数形式，同一个代词可用来指代男人、女人或一群人。例如：
--She didn‘t recognize the man who had spoken. --I met a girl who knew Mrs Townsend.
--There are many people who find this intolerable.
下面就关系代词在限制性和非限制性形容词从句中的具体用法举例： a. 关系代词在限制性形容词从句中：
--I don‘t like people who/that lose their tempers easily. (who/that代替主句中的people，在从句中作 主语。)
--The airline has a booklet that/which tells you most of the important things about a trip to Europe. (that/which代替主句中的a booklet, 在从句中充当主语。)
--The girls whom/ that he employs are always complaining about their pay. (whom/that代替主句
中的the girls，在从句中充当动词employ的宾语。)
--The bed that/which I slept on has no mattress. (which 代替主句中的the bed, 在从句中作介词on
的宾语。)
--Let ABC be a triangle whose sides are of unequal length. (whose代替主句中的 triangle，在从句
中作定语修饰sides)
b. 关系代词在非限制性形容词从句中：
--This is Mr. Gallagher, who writes comic poetry. (注意此时的who不能用that来替代)
--The giant panda, which is to be found in the remote parts of China, lives exclusively on bamboo shoots.
--His house, for which he paid $10,000, is now worth $50,000.
--The small man in the raincoat, whom nobody recognized, turned out to be Olivia‘s first husband. (注意whom不能省略, 也不能替换为that)
--Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job.
2.2 关系副词
包括代替时间的when，代替地点的where以及代替原因且先行词为reason的why。也有的语法学家
认为when, where, why这三个副词不过是代替了指时间的in/on which， 指地点的in/at which，以及
可以指示原因的for which。
--Dan‘s fondest memory is of last year, when the club gave a tea party for the Queen Mother. (when代替主句中的last year，相当于 in which, 在从句中作时间状语。)
--I know a wood where you can find wild strawberries. (where 代替主句中的a wood，相当于in which, 在从句中作地点状语。)
--Is there any reason why you can not come? (why代替主句中的reason，相当于for which，在从句
中作原因状语。)
--In time we reached a stage where we had more black readers than white ones. (注意where 的先 行词除了地点名词外，还可以是situation, stage 等词)
2.3 关于that的特殊用法:
a. that替代其他关系代词
在限制性形容词从句中that 是最活跃的一个关系代词。它常常可以代替其他关系代词（除了 whose），既可指人，也可指物；可以作主语，也可以作宾语。口语体中尤其明显。 --He is the man who/that people like at first sight. （指人，作主语）
--The lawyer whom/who/that I consulted gave me some useful advice. (指人，作宾语)
--Could you iron the trousers which/that are hanging up behind the door? （指物，作主语） --The school which/ that my children attend is within walking distance. （指物，作动词宾语） --The ladder which/ that I was standing on began to slip. (指物，作介词宾语。注意只能说The
ladder on which I was…关于介词宾语参见19.5) b. 从句连接词只能选用that
先行词前如果有限定词all, any(thing), every(thing), (a) few, (a) little, no(thing), none, only, some
(thing), very或含有序数词或形容词最高级等修饰时，其后的关系代词通常要用that。如果这个关系
代词作动词宾语时也可以省略（that的省略参见19.3）。以下例句中请注意that和what的区别。如：
--All that he has ever said confirms my suspicions of his motives. (= What he has ever said…) --All the apples that fall are eaten by the pigs.
--Have you got anything that belongs to me? (= Have you got what belongs to me?) --I advise you to accept any offer you receive.
--I hope that the little that I‘ve been able to do has been of some use. (= I hope what I‘ve…) --The only thing that matters is to find our way home. (= What matters…) --That‘s the very film that I want to see.
--I‘ll speak to her the first opportunity I have.
--The visiting room was the worst (that) I had seen.
--She must be one of the most remarkable women that ever lived. c. 作主语补足语的连接词that 限制性形容词从句中，当先行词是一个表示特征的主语补足语时，该从句用that而不是who来引导。
此时的that也可以省略。
--She‘s not the brilliant dancer (that) she used to be. …the distinguished actress that she later became. --That was the kind of person she was. (在非限制从句中，则用which来引导, 如：They accused him of being a traitor, which he was. )
2.4 关于that 和which的互换和不可互换：
如果先行词是物，which和that在限制性形容词从句中大都可以互换，但在非限制性形容词从句中不
能用that。例如我们可以说：
--The whisky that/ which he drank last night cost him eight pounds. 但是，在非限制性形容词从句中，
--I passed him a large glass of whisky, which he drank immediately. 不能说成*…whisky, that he drank…
另外，which在非限制性形容词从句中可以代替前面整个分句或句子（具体用法参见19.6）, which也
可以用在―介词+which‖结构（参见19.5.1）。这两种情形下的which都不能用that替换。
2.5 who 和whom的区别:
这两个关系代词的先行词都是人，但它们的区别并不与人称代词主格和宾格的区别相对应。其实
who, whom主要是文体上的区别：whom大致上限用于正式文体，在非正式文体中，人们有避免使
用whom的倾向，可以用who，that来代替whom，但这些关系代词通常都被省略。 --People (that) I visit/ speak to… 就比People whom I visit/ speak to…更多见于口语中。
以下例句中，如果选用whom则表示文体较正式，如果选用who, that或是干脆省略关系代词，则文
体属于非正式。
--The lawyer (whom/ who/ that) I consulted gave me some useful advice. --That‘s the man who (m) I saw talking to your parents.
--I think you should stay faithful to the person (whom/who/that) you‘re married to.
但是注意:在介词后的只能是whom而不能是who，如不能说*This is the person to who you spoke.
而是This is the person to whom you spoke. （具体用法参见19.5中―介词+ whom‖）。
2.6 whose 的用法
whose与其它关系代词一样在从句中都能单独充当一个句子成分，表示所属关系，whose象his,
her 或its这样的形容词性物主代词一样与名词连用, whose充当该名词的定语。在形容词从句中
（包括限制性与非限制性形容词从句），―whose + 名词‖这一结构可以用作主语，动词宾语或介
词宾语。另外请注意whose既可指人也可指物。例如: --The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
--In Wasdale there is a mysterious dark lake, whose depth has never been measured. --It was a meeting whose importance I did not realize at the time.
--According to Cook , whose book is published on Thursday, most disasters are avoidable. --This is Felicity, whose sister you met last week. ―介词+ whose ‖参见19.5.1。
在先行词是非人称的情况下，有某种避免使用whose的趋势。有时用of which代替whose指物，词序
一般是―名词+of which‖。
--He‘s written a book whose name / the name of which I‘ve completely forgotten. (另参见19.5.2) 或者改用介词词组，如:
--The house whose roof was damaged has now been repaired. 改为The house with the damaged roof has now been repaired.
形容词从句改为介词短语参见 19.4.2 。
2.7 why
虽然说用why引导的形容词从句可以用来修饰先行词reason,可是the reason why在语义上显得重
复，人们普遍使用的是省略why或是换用名词性从句。如： --Is that the reason why they came? 通常说成：
--Is that the reason they came? 或Is that why they came?
3 关系代词that 和which 的省略 （omission of that, which）
3.1 在限制性形容词从句中，关系代词that, which作动词宾语或介词宾语时常常被省略，口语体中尤其如此。
--The ladder (that/ which) I was standing on began to slip.
--The car (that/which) I hired broke down after five kilometers. --This is the room (that/which) Churchill was born.
限制性形容词从句可以修饰一些感叹性名词短语(一般表示不赞同)，此时的从句关系代词通常也省 略。如：
--The fuss they made!
--The things they get up to! --The clothes she wears!
―介词+which‖结构参见 19.5.1。
3.2 在表明方式、时间或地点的某些单词后面，常用that代替in which, when或where。此时that也可以省略。
--I didn‘t like the way (that) she spoke to me.
--The day (when/that ) she arrived at the congress was sunny.
--Things have changed a great deal since the last time you were here. --Throughout the period I was in London, it rained heavily.
--The moment (when) you do something they disagree with they are at your throat… --Do you know anywhere (that) I can get a drink?
3.3 在there be句型中的关系代词通常省略，参见19.1.5的c部分。
4 形容词从句的缩简形式 (adjective clauses reduced to)
形容词从句通常可以有三种缩简方式：动词-ing形式 ，动词-ed形式以及介词短语。请注意，缩简
之后的短语或分句并不一定依然作定语修饰原来的先行词，很多时候它们可以作状语。还有，可以
缩简为短语的形容词从句必须是:从句的关系代词作从句的主语。
4.1 缩减为V-ing形式 / -ed形式 (Reduced to V-ing form / –ed participles)
a. 形容词从句在下列情况可缩简为动词-ing形式 1) 从句中的动词是进行时态，例如：
--People who are/were waiting for the bus often shelter/sheltered in my doorway. 缩简成
--People waiting for the bus…
--He gestured towards the three cards that were lying on the tables. 缩简成： --He gestured to the three cards lying on the tables.
--The bride, who was smiling happily, chatted to the guests. 缩简成： --The bride, smiling happily, chatted to the guests. (-ing短语作伴随状语) --the scream of a man who is/ was dying in torment 缩简成： --the scream of a man dying in torment
-ing形式可以有被动态，表示被动进行，例如：
--Reports that are being written by my colleague will be discussed tomorrow. 缩简成： --Reports being written by my colleague …
2) 从句中的动词表示一个习惯性或连续性的动作：
--Passengers who travel/ traveled in this bus buy/ bought their tickets in books. 缩简成； --Passengers travelling in this bus…
--A notice which warns/ warned people… 缩简成： --A notice warning people…
--Anyone who/that followed this advice could find himself in trouble. 缩简成： --Anyone following this advice could find himself in trouble. 3) 从句中的主要动词表示一种愿望，即句中动词是wish, desire, want, hope等（但不是like），例如：
--people who wish / wished to go on the tour 缩简成： --people wishing to go on the tour
--fans who hope/ hoped for a glimpse of the star 缩简成： --fans hoping for a glimpse of the star 4) 从句中的动词是某些静态动词
--a wicker shopping-basket that /which contains groceries 缩简成： --a wicker shopping-basket containing groceries
--It was a mixture that consists of oil and vinegar. 缩简成： --It was a mixture consisting of oil and vinegar.
--This is a liquid that resembles that of soapy water. 缩简成： --This is a liquid with a taste resembling that of soapy water.
5) 非限制性形容词从句中如果是上述动词之一或者是表示知道、考虑的任何动词（例如know, think, believe, expect）
--John, who knew that his wife was expecting a baby, started to take a course on baby care. 缩简成：
--John, knowing that his wife was expecting a baby, …
--Peter, who thought the journey would took two days, said… 缩简成； --Peter, thinking the journey would take two days, said…
--Tom, who expected to be paid the following week, offered… 缩简成； --Tom, expecting to be paid the following week, offered…
--Bill, who wanted to make an impression on Ann, took her to… 缩简成： --Bill, wanting to make an important impression on Ann, took her to… 6) 表示同位的形容词从句
--She enjoys her job, which is teaching English. 缩简成： --She enjoys her job, teaching English.
--Julia, who was a nun, spent much of her life in prayer an meditation. 缩简成： --Julia, being a nun, …
--The baby would probably not live to grow up, who was a scrawny little thing, unlikely to survive the normal ailments of childhood. 缩简成： --…, being a scrawny little thing, …
b. 形容词从句缩简为动词-ing形式后并不一定表示进行
形容词从句缩简为动词-ing形式并不总是表示进行．在许多情况下-ing形式只是表示主动。也就是
说一个-ing短语可以代替多个动词时态。如：
--The person writing reports is my colleague. = The person who will write/ will be writing/ writes/ is writing/ wrote/ was writing reports is my colleague.
即形容词从句中处于不同时态的动词词组write reports都可以替换为同一个分词短语writing reports。
c. 形容词从句缩简为动词-ing形式后并不一定是定语
动词-ing短语替换了原来的形容词从句后并不一定还作定语，它们也可以作状语。如： --The apple tree, which was swaying gently in the breeze, was a reminder of old times. 缩简成： --The apple tree, swaying gently in the breeze, … (作状语，补充说明the apple tree) --The crowd, who were laughing and shrieking, rushed under the nearest trees. 缩简成： --Laughing and shrieking, the crowd rushed under the nearest trees. （作状语，表示伴随） d. 替换限制性形容词从句的-ing短语通常不能用完成体，如： --The man who has won the race is my brother. 不能替换为 --*The man having won the race is my brother.
e. 形容词从句缩简为一个带逻辑主语的-ing短语有时，形容词从句可以替换为一个带逻辑主语的-ing短语，例如：
--He began hitting them with his stick, whose reply had not come as quickly as he wanted 缩简成：
--…, their reply not having come as quickly as he wanted..
--Bats are surprisingly long-lived creatures, some of which have a life-expectancy of around twenty years. 缩简成：
--…, some having a life-expectancy of around twenty years. f. 形容词从句缩简为否定的-ing短语
否定形式的-ing短语也可以代替形容词从句，例如： --He, who did not wish to boast, paused. 缩简成： --He paused, not wishing to boast.
--He, who had not seen her for fifteen years or so, failed to recognize her at first. 缩简成： --He failed to recognize her at first, not having seen her for fifteen years or so.
g. 形容词从句中的主动词是被动态，即先行词是该动词表示的动作的结果或承受者，则可以用-ed短语替代形容词从句。-ed短语直接置于名词（先行词）之后。 --a girl who is/ was called Patricia 缩简成：a girl called Patricia
--those who are/have been/ were/ had been assembled 缩简成：those assembled
--two of the problems that have been mentioned above 缩简成；two of the problems mentioned above
--The substance, which was discovered almost by accident, has revolutionized medicine. 缩简成：
--…, discovered almost by accident, …
--The novels of Mary Webb, which were praised by Stanley Baldwin and were so popular in the 30s, and so popular in the 30s, were great favorites of mine. 缩简成： --…, praised by Stanley Baldwin…
--She who was surprised at my reaction tried to console me. 缩简成： --Surprised at my reaction, she tried to console me. h. 一个–ed短语可以替代多种动词时态 例如；
--the car (being) repaired by that mechanic 可以对应这样一些时态：
--the car that will be repaired/ is (being) repaired/ was (being) repaired by that mechanic… i. 与-ing短语一样，-ed短语替换限制性形容词从句通常不能用完成体。例如： --The food which has been eaten was meant for tomorrow. 不能换成： --*The food having been eaten was meant for tomorrow.
4.2 介词短语 (prepositional phrases)
英语中的介词应用本来就相当灵活，用介词短语作后置修饰语被认为是最常见的。那么用介词短
语替代那些作后置定语的形容词从句也就非常普遍了。 a. for短语替代why引导的形容词从句 例如：
--She asked the reason why there was a delay. 缩简成： --She asked the reason for the delay. b. with/ without短语替代形容词从句 这是应用范围最广的一个替代结构。
with短语可表示某人或某物所具有的特征、特点或拥有的事物。without是with的反义词。 --a man who has a red nose 缩简成： a man with a red nose
--a man who carries/ carried/ was carrying the gun 缩简成： the man with the gun --women who have no children 缩简成：women without children --the house which has no porch 缩简成：the house without a porch 还可用来表示某物表面具有或内部包含的事物。
--a round box in which there are some buttons 缩简成： a round box with some buttons in it --fragments of wrapping paper to which there are still bits of sticky pate adhering 缩简成： fragments of wrapping paper with bits of sticky pate still adhering to them --The old man, whose tears were running down his face, stood up. 缩简成： --The old man stood up with tears running down his face.
--It was a hot, calm day, when every object at the sea‘s surface was visible for miles. 缩简成： --It was a hot, calm day, with every object at the sea‘s surface visible for miles. c. in短语替代形容词从句描写穿戴 例如：
--a grey-haired man who is/was wearing a raincoat 缩简成：a grey-haired man in a raincoat --little groups of people who are/ were in black 缩简成： little groups of people in black --the man who is/ was wearing dark glasses 缩简成：the man in the dark glasses d. of短语替代形容词从句可以表示某人或某物具有特定的品质
例如：
--a woman who has/ had much energy and great ambition 缩简成：a woman of energy and ambition of用于数词前，表示人的年龄大小等。例如：
--a woman who is/ was twenty-two (years old) 缩简成：a woman of twenty-two e. 原形容词从句中的介词词组替代原从句
形容词从句中本来就有介词词组，并且有时这些介词词组本身就能表达出从句中用―动词+介词‖词
组表达的比较确定的含义，这样就可以省略动词而只用介词词组。例如最常见的是表示方位、时间
的介词词组：
--the car that stood outside the station 缩简成：the car outside the station --She reached into the room that/ which was behind her. 缩简成： She reached into the room behind her.
--My brother, who has lived in America for over 30 years, can still speak Italian. 缩简成： After 30 years in America, my brother can still speak Italian. 其他有明确含义的介词词组：
--the bond that is between mother and child 缩简成：the bond between mother and child --the man who is/ was in charge 缩简成：the man in charge
--a film that is about four men on holiday 缩简成：a film about four men on holiday f. 带逻辑主语的介词词组替代形容词从句
有时，可以用一个带逻辑主语的介词词组替代原来的形容词从句，例如：
--He was waiting, drumming with his fingers, whose eyes were on his napkin. 缩简成： …, his eyes on his napkin.
5 ―介词+ which/ whom/ whose‖结构和―名词/代词+介词+which‖结构 ( preposition +which /whom/ whose; noun/ preposition + which) 5.1 ―介词+ which/whom/whose‖结构
形容词从句中的介词可以放在从句中或放在关系代词前，如： --The old house (which) I was telling you about is empty. --The old house about which I was telling you is empty.
介词放在关系代词前就出现了―介词+which/ whom/ whose‖结构。此结构一般只用于正式文体。而
在英语口语体中，通常将介词放在从句中并省去关系代词。试比较:
--The people (who/whom/that) he worked with thought he was a bit strange. (口语体) --The people with whom he worked regarded him as eccentric. （正式文体） 再看几个例句：
--The man from whom I bought it told me to oil it.
--Atlas (in Greek mythology) was a kneeling man on whose shoulders the world rested. --Her brother snatched the letter away, at which she was furious.
--Michel Croz, with whose help Whymper climbed the Matterhorn, was one of the first of the professional guides.
--Universal Agroplastics, of which Max Harrison was until recently the chairman, has made loss of three million pounds this year.
（环球农用塑料制品公司今年亏损达三百万英镑，直到前不久麦克斯哈里森还是它的董事长。）
另外英语中我们常常见到―介词+ which/ whom/ whose‖结构的一个引伸结构―介词+ which +名词‖。
该结构引出非限制性形容词从句，对主句作进一步说明。该结构中的名词常为time、point等表时间
的名词，或case、fact、 event、situation等名词。例如： --We arrived at noon, by which time the demonstration was over.
--I was told my work was unsatisfactory, at which point I submitted my resignation. --He may be late, in which case we ought to wait for him.
--They were under water for several hours, from which experience they emerged unharmed. --The last speaker assured the audience that the party would win the election, on which optimistic note the meeting ended.
5.2 ―名词/代词+介词+which‖结构
a. 在非限制性形容词从句中，某些名词或代词可以与of whom和of which连用。除一般名词外，可以用于这个结构的名词或代词包括限定词（如some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many, most及few）以及其他表示数量的词和形容词最高级, 如a number (of whom), three (of which), half (of which), the majority (of whom), the youngest (of whom) 例如： --We study in a big room, the windows of which open to the park.
--It is a language shared by several quite diverse cultures, each of which uses it differently. --He introduced me to his boys, one of whom offered to go with me.
--The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd. --We‘ve tested three hundred types of boot, none of which is completely waterproof. --Her sons, both of whom work abroad, ring her up every week. --I met the fruit-pickers, several of whom were university students. b. 限制性形容词从句中的―名词/代词+介词+ which‖结构
在限制性形容词从句中，由于of which可以代替whose用来指物，也就出现了―名词+of which‖ 的结 构。例如：
--We had a meeting the purpose of which was completely unclear. (= … a meeting whose purpose was …)
--a town the inhabitants of which speak French (= a town whose inhabitants speak French) --I traveled in a lorry the back of which the owner had loaded with yams. (=… a lorry whose back…)
6 短语或整个句子作先行词 (with phrase/ clauses as antecedent)
有时形容词从句修饰的不是它前面的一个名词，而是前面的整个分句或句子，这样，整个分句或整
句子就成为形容词从句的先行词。这样的形容词从句通常都是非限制性形容词从句。例如： --He tore up my photo, which upset me. 他把我的照片撕了，这使我很不高兴。
在这个句子里，不是照片令人不高兴，而是他把照片撕了这件事令人不高兴。整个句子He
tore up
my photo都是形容词从句的先行词。在这种情况下，从句的连接词总是用which，不能用that 或
what。有时从句的先行词是前面的短语，如：
--He walks for an hour each morning, which would bore me. （which 指的是walk for an hour each
morning 这件事）
更多见的是前面整个句子作从句先行词：
--She cycled from London to Glasgow, which is pretty good for a woman of 75. --The clock struck thirteen, which made everyone laugh. --They are fond of snakes and lizards, which surprises me.
--She was much kinder to her youngest child than she was to the others, which made the others jealous.
--Minute computers need only minute amounts of power, which means that they will run on small batteries.
--Colin married my sister and I married his bother, which makes Colin and me double in-laws.
Lecture 23 Existential Sentence
The existential sentence is a special type of sentence structure that denotes the existence of something. The communicative function of an existential sentence is to elicit a new topic, which, as focus of information, is generally expressed by the ―notional subject‖ coming after the verb phrase.
23.1 Structural properties of existential sentences
The existential sentence generally begins with an unstressed there as formal subject followed by a form of the verb be or other verb that is related to the notion of existence. Following the verb is a noun phrase, which is known as the ―notional‖ or ―real‖ subject as distinguished from the formal
subject, and the notional subject is usually followed by a locative, or at times by a temporal adverbial. Thus, the general pattern of an existential sentence is as follows:
There + be + NP (noun phrase) + locative / temporal adverbial (地点/时间状语)
1. Introductory there is different from a fronted adverb there in that it is unstressed and meaningless, while the initial adverb there(句首状语) is stressed and acts as an adverbial of place. There are too many people here. There are our friends.
2. real subject (真正主语均为泛指的名词短语)
The notional subject, which is actually the focus of information, is usually a noun phrase with indefinite specific reference. The determiners commonly occurring in this kind of noun phrase include the indefinite article, the zero article, and other indefinite determiners such as some, any, no, several, many, much, more, (a) few, (a) little, less, another, a lot of, plenty of, a number of, enough, as well as the cardinal numerals. The notional subject can also be realized by some-, any-, no- compounds such as something, nothing, anyone, etc.
So any statement with an definite noun phrase as subject and a verb phrase containing the verb be can generally be transformed into an existential sentence.
1) 七个基本句型中V为进行体时，均可转换为-ing分句作后置修饰语的存在句；C为形容词、副词或介词短语时，也可转换为这些词为后置修饰语的存在句： SV： A tree is falling. → There is a tree falling.
ＳＶＣ： A computer was available. → There was a computer available. A new film will be on. → There will be a new film on.
ＳＶＯ： No one was greeting him. →There was no one greeting him.
ＳＶＯＯ：A girl has been telling me her troubles. →There has been a girl telling me her troubles. ＳＶＣ： Someone is painting the door green. →There is someone painting the door green. ＳＶＡ： Is anyone in the room? →Is there anyone in the room? ＳＶＯＡ：Many workers have been building the bridge since then. →There have been many workers building the bridge since then. 2) V不是进行体时， 只能转换为关系分句作修饰语。 No one came here. →There was no one who came here. I must visit a friend. → There is a friend I must visit.
3) 主语为类指（generic reference）的名词短语时， 不能转换为肯定的关系分句，而要转换为主要分句和关系分句均为否定的结构。
A plant needs light and water. →There is no plant that does not need light or water. →(误) There is a plant that needs light and water. 3. Predicator in existential sentence
The predicator or predicate verb of an existential sentence is commonly a form of the verb be, finite or non-finite, simple or perfective. The predicator may also be realized by ―modal + be / have been‖ or ―semi-auxiliary + be There may not be any other solution. There must be someone in the house.
There can‘t have been much traffic so late at night. There appears to be no doubt about it. There‘s going to be a storm.
Apart from the verb be, there are at least three classes of semantically-related verbs that can act as
predicator in an existential sentence. These include
verbs of existence and position（姿势动词）: exist, live, stand, lie; verbs of motion(位置移动): come, go, walk;
verbs of emergence or development: appear, arise, emerge, develop, happen , occur. There comes a time for decision.
There lay an ancient city somewhere in the mountains. There exists a number of similar cases.
When she stopped, there followed the strangest silence. 23.2 Non-finite existential clauses
1. two types of non-finite existential clauses:
there to be / to have been + NP + locative / temporal adverbial (地点/时间状语) there being / having been + NP + locative / temporal adverbial (地点/时间状语) 2. As subject: It is impossible for there to be any doubt about it.
It makes me mad for there to be so much trouble just getting in to see you. There being an index to this book is a great advantage.
As object: there to be作复宾及物动词expect, hate, intend, like, mean, prefer, want的宾语。 I don‘t want there to be a meeting to discuss the question. We hate there to be queues here and there. He considers there to be no doubt about it. there being可作单宾及物动词和介词的宾语
Do you anticipate there to be any real problem in getting support? Do you remember there having been a temple there? I am relying on there being a good opportunity.
As subject complementation /prepositional complementation: there to be 作主补/there being 作介词补语。
What John was waiting for was for there to be complete silence.
He would always ignore the fact of there being a backdoor to any house. She was disappointed at there being so little to do.
As adverbial: for there to be 作状语； there being 也可作状语 It was too late for there to be any taxis.
There being nobody else at hand, I had to do it by myself. There having been no rain, the ground was dry.
Lecture 24 It patterns
The present lecture will deal with three types of sentence with non-referring it as formal subject. They are sentences with it as formal subject denoting time, distance, and atmospheric conditions, sentences with anticipatory it as subject, and cleft sentences introduced by it. The word it in these patterns is called respectively ―empty it‖(虚义it), ―anticipatory it‖(先行it), and it as introductory word of cleft sentences (分裂句引导词it). 24.1 Empty it and anticipatory it 1. Empty it (非指代性)
As distinguished from the third-person singular, neutral pronoun, empty it does not refer to
anything. It is meaningless and is chiefly used as formal subject in sentences denoting time, place, distance, and atmospheric conditions.
It seemed a long time before my turn came.
It is very warm and wet in South China these days.
Practice： Translate the following sentences into English, using it: 冬天，天色晚得早。It gets dark early in winter. 从这儿到车站有两英里（路程）。It‘s two miles to the station from here. 几个月之后我们才又见面。It was several months before we met again. 你见过下冰雹吗？ Have you seen it hail？
Empty it, also occurs in sentences denoting a general situation. It was amusing when the conjuror produced the rabbit. It has fared well with him. 他成功了。
Empty it, also occurs in the following structure: It looks as if the college is very small.
看来（好像）他很害怕。It looks as if he were very afraid.
Empty it also occurs in some idioms where it functions as formal object or prepositional complementation.
Do that again and you‘ll catch it.(will be scolded) If we start early we‘ll be able to make it.(arrive it)
He was hard put to it to decide whether to stay or to quit. (has great difficulty) No nations should lord it over other nations. (任何国家都不应对他国耍威风)
2. Anticipatory it
Anticipatory it commonly occurs in sentences with a nominal clause as subject or object. The subject/object clause is usually shifted to the end of the sentence, leaving the vacancy to be filled in by an anticipatory it. The extraposed subject/ object may be a finite clause or a non-finite clause, that is, an infinitive or –ing participle construction. For this kind of subject/object , extraposition is more frequent than its natural position.
It doesn‘t matter in the least what you say. (=What you say does not matter in the least)
It happens that I have had some nasty experiences in dealing with him. 碰巧在应付他时我曾有过不愉快的经历。（=I happen to have had some nasty experiences in dealing with him.） It seems that John‘s not coming after all.(= John doesn‘t seem to be coming after all.) Practice:
问她没有用，她什么也不知道。It is no use asking her. She doesn‘t know anything. 由你来决定该怎么办。We leave it to you to decide what must be done. 可惜你错过了那次音乐会。It is a pity that you missed the concert. 牛奶已经泼翻，哭也无用。（无益的后悔无济于事。）It is no use crying over spilt milk. 24.2 It as introductory word of cleft sentences
1．Cleft sentence is an emphatic construction with non-referring it as formal subject. It is so called because it is formed by dividing a single statement into two separate parts each with a verb of its
own. The general pattern of a cleft sentence is as follows:
It + be + focal element + that / who clause (be 可以采取复杂形式)
Generally speaking, except the predicator, almost all the elements of a statement can be singled out as the focal element of a cleft sentence.
John gave Mary a handbag at Christmas.（分别强调各个成分。） Notes:
在规范英语中，主语补语通常不可以用作分裂句的中心成分。 如：It is beautiful that she is. (×)
It is chairman of the Committee that he is. (×)
2. Introductory it in cleft sentences vs anticipatory it
It is surprising that Mary should have won the first place. (先行it, 去掉it is that不完整) It is Mary that has won the first place. (分裂句引导词it，去掉仍完整)
This is the money that is most needed.(关系分句) It is money that is most needed. (分裂句)
3. Pseudo-cleft sentences (拟似分裂句—强调谓语动词的一种句型) I gave her a handbag.→ What I did was (to) give her a handbag.
He will be taking a plane to Beijing. → What he will be doing is taking a plane to Beijing.
He has given her a handbag. → what he has done is to give / give /given (偶尔用) her a handbag.
Another type of ―pseudo-cleft sentence‖ is as following:
―what-clause + be + noun phrase‖ or ―noun phrase + be + what-clause‖ What he gave here was a handbag. A handbag was what he gave her.
Lecture 25 Conditional Sentence
A conditional sentence (or conditional) is composed of two parts: conditional clause + main clause. The following four types represent perhaps the commonest and the most useful ones: If you heat ice, it melts.
If we catch the 10 o‘clock train, we will get there by lunchtime. If we caught the 10 o‘clock train, we would get there by lunch-time.
If we had caught the 10 o‘clock train, we would have got there by lunch-time. 25.1 Conditionals — Type I
Type I is a kind of real conditional. It is also called ―whenever-type‖. It can used to denote the following meanings.
1. universal truth or general validity (factual discussions and scientific or technical material): (if) simple present + (main) simple present
If you pour oil on water, it floats. If you divide eight by two, you get four. 2. present habitual action (Ibid)
If I make a promise, I keep it. If it rains, I go to work by car. 3. past habitual action : (if) simple past + (main) simple past If I made a promise, I kept it. If it rained, I went to work by car. 25.2 Conditionals — Type II
Type II is the commonest of real conditionals,. This type falls into three forms: basic form, variant form, and alternative form. 1. Type II— basic form
(If) simple present + (main) will,etc + infinitive If he goes to England, he will have to learn English. If it is fine tomorrow, we can have a picnic somewhere. (If) simple present + (main) imperative If you wake up before me, give me a call. If you meet that girl, introduce yourself to her. 2. Type II— variant form
(If) should (可用于所有人称, 表示不太肯定的婉转口气)+ infinitive + (main) will, would, etc. + infinitive
If it should rain again, the flowers will bloom.
If he should come tomorrow, I would tell him everything.
(If) will (表意愿) + infinitive + (main) will, would, etc. + infinitive
If my father will (=are willing to )give me permission, I shall spend a few months abroad. If he will accept the nomination, a lot of electors will vote for him.
(If)would (make a polite request)+ infinitive + (main) should, would, etc. + infinitive If you would try Italian food, you would like it.
If you would read more carefully, you would understand what the author means.
C.f.: If the landlord would give up his land, that would be blessing to the peasants.(unreal conditional)
3. Type II— alternative form (替换形式) Imperative + and-clause
Set your alarm clock, and you won‘t oversleep. Imperative + or-clause
Set your alarm clock, or (else) you‘ll oversleep.
Summary: As a matter of fact, there are far more possible sequences of verb forms for real conditionals. So long as they do not make unreal conditionals, almost all sequences of verb forms are possible. Thus, in addition to the above-mentioned types, we can also say: What are you going to do if it rains?
If he has finished his work, we shall be able to take him with us. If you‘ve been traveling all night, you probably need a rest.
If he arrived only yesterday, he‘ll probably not leave before Sunday. If that was what he told you, he was telling lies. 25.3 Conditionals — Type III
Type III is a sort of unreal conditional. 1. Type III— basic form
(if) simple past + (main) would, etc + infinitive Identical in form but decreasing probability:
If we caught the 10 o‘clock train, we would get there by lunch-time. (suppositional or tentative but not impossible)
If I came into a fortune, I would give up working. (hypothetical or practically impossible)
If I knew how it worked, I could tell you what to do. (contrary to present fact, and hence unreal) 2. Type III— variant form
(If ) were to + infinitive + (main) would, etc + infinitive
If we were to miss the 10 o‘clock train, we wouldn‘t get there till after lunch.
(If ) would (volition not likely to be fulfilled)+ infinitive + (main) would, etc + infinitive If you would cook the dinner, I would do the washing up afterwards. 25.4 Conditionals — Type IV
Type IV is the unreal conditional that is completely hypothetical and represents what is contrary to past fact.
1.Type IV — basic form
(If) past perfective + (main) would, etc + perfective infinitive If you had told me to, I would have paid him.
If we had caught that plane, we could have been taking part in the celebrations. mixed type of conditional:
If he liked dancing, I‘d have taken him to a discotheque. If writing had never been invented, we would have no books. 2.Type IV — variant form
(If) were to have done + (main) would (could, might, etc) have done
If you were to have asked me, I would have been only too willing to help. Practice
I. Answer the following questions with conditional sentences:
1. How many days are there in February if it is a leap year? (There are 29 days in February…) 2. How did you go to your office if your car broke down? (I went to my office by bus…) 3. What happens if followers don‘t get any water? (Flowers die …)
4. What do you expect a teacher to do if you make a mistake? (If I make a mistake, I expect the teacher to correct it)
5. What must one have if one wants to go to a foreign country ? (If one wants to visit a foreign country, one must have a valid passport) II. Make real conditionals:
1. His health will not improve unless he gets more exercise. 2. If I refuse to go, he will be angry with me. 3. If he should come, please let me know. 4. Hide it quickly if the teacher comes.
Lecture 26 Direct and Indirect Speech (I)
In quoting someone‘s words, we can either use the direct speech, ie repeat the actual words of the speaker without changes in grammar, or use the indirect speech, ie tell what he said without repeating the actual words. Direct speech is usually put in quotation marks; indirect speech normally occurs after a reporting verb without being put in quotation marks. The present lecture is devoted to the transformation of direct speech into indirect speech. This transformation usually entails some changes in tense forms, word order, pronouns, determiners, temporal or locative adverbials as well as other aspects of grammar.
Before the lecture, get familiar with some terms: direct speech, indirect speech, report, transformation, temporal adverbials, locative adverbials, statements 26.1 Changes in persons人称的转变
1）直接引语中的第一人称，一般转换为第三人称，如： He said，―I am very sorry.‖ ——>He said that he was very sorry.
2）直接引语中的第二人称，如果原话是针对转述人说的，转换为第一人称，如： ―You should be more careful next time,‖ my father told me.——> My father told me that I should be more careful the next time.
3）直接引语中的第二人称，如果原话是针对第三人称说的，转换成第三人称。如： She said to her son, ―I'll check your homework tonight.‖ ——> She said to her son that she would check his homework that night.
4）人称的转换包括人称代词、物主代词和名词性物主代词等，如：
He asked me, ―Will you go to the station with me to meet a friend of mine this afternoon?‖ ——> He asked me whether I would go to the station with him to meet a friend of his that afternoon. 总之，人称的转换不是固定的，具体情况，具体对待，要符合逻辑Indirect statements
26.2 Changes in time, place adverbials, demonstrating pronouns and verbs in contrast 时间状语、地点状语及某些对比性的指示代词和动词变化 1. 时间状语：
now → then tomorrow →the next（following）day
today→ that day next week →the next（following）week（month, year） yesterday → the day before two days ago→ two days before
last week （month, year）→ the week（month, year） before this week →that week（month, year）
He said, ―It was completed a year ago.‖→ he said it had been completed a year before.
He said, ―The sausages will go off if you don‘t cook them today.‖ → He said the sausages would go off if I didn‘t cook them that day. 2. 指示代词：these → those 3. 地点状语：here →there
She said, ―I won't come here any more.‖——> She said that she wouldn‘t go there any more.. 4. 动词：come→go，bring→take 26.3 Changes in tense forms
When a statement is turned from direct into indirect speech, the time reference is usually back-shifted if the reporting verb is in the past tense. When the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verb in the indirect speech should be turned from the simple present into the simple past, from the present progressive into the past progressive, from the present perfective into the past perfective, or from the present perfective progressive into the past perfective progressive.
直接引语改为间接引语时，主句中的谓语动词如果是过去时，从句（即间接引语部分）的谓语动词在时态方面要作相应的变化，变成过去时范畴的各种时态（实际也是宾语从句的时态要求），变化如下：
direct indirect direct indirect
simple present simple past simple past past perfect
present progressive past progressive past perfect past perfect present perfect past perfect past progressive past progressive future time past future
Discussion:
―I am very glad to visit your school‖, she said. ——> She said she was very glad to visit our school.
Tom said, ―We are listening to the pop music.‖ ——> Tom said that they were listening to the pop music.
He said，―I haven't heard from my parents these days.‖ ——> He said that he hadn't heard from his parents those days.
B. There are cases in which no such changes are necessary, even though the reporting verb is in the past tense. 直接引语变成间接引语时，从句时态无须改变的情况
1) When a statement is turned from direct into indirect speech, there is no change of tense if the reporting verb is in the present. 当主句的引述动词是一般现在时或将来时 He always says, ―I am tired out.‖ ——>He always says that he is tired out.
He will say, ―I‘ll try my best to help you.‖ ——>He will say that he will try his best to help me. 2) When what is reported is a timeless fact, a scientific truth, a present habit or a proverb当直接引语是客观真理、自然现象、谚语、格言时
Our teacher said to us, ―Light travels faster than sound.‖ ——> Our teacher told us that light travels faster than sound.
He said，―Practice makes perfect.‖ ——>He said that practice makes perfect. 3) When the verb in the direct speech is a be-subjunctive
―I insist that you give up smoking, ‖ said the doctor. ——> The doctor insisted that I give up
smoking.
―How I wish it were not so cold here in winter, ‖ remarked the tourist. ——> The tourist remarked how he wished hat it were not so cold there in winter. ―I suggest the meeting be put off till next week, ‖ he said. ——> He suggested the meeting be put off till the next week.
4) when the time adverbial in the direct speech contain a concrete past 当直接引语部分带有具体的过去时间状语时
He said, ―I went to college in 1994.‖ ——>He told us that he went to college in 1994.
5) When the clause introduced by when and while occurs in the direct speech to show the past time当直接引语中有以when, while引导的从句，表示过去的时间时 He said，―When I was a child, I usually played football after school.‖ ——> He said that when he was a child, he usually played football after school. 6）When the verb phrase in the direct speech contains a modal auxiliary that has not a past form当直接引语中有情态动词should, would, could, had better, would rather, might, must, ought to, used to, need时
The doctor said, ―You'd better drink plenty of water.‖ ——>The doctor said I'd better drink plenty of water.
He said, ―She must be a teacher.‖——> He said that she must be a teacher.
He said, ―She ought to have arrived her office by now.‖——> He said that she ought to have arrived her office by then.
The teacher said, ―You needn't hand in your compositions today.‖——>
The teacher said we needn't/didn't need to/didn't have to hand in our compositions.
―You mustn‘t come in without knocking at the door,‖ he said. ——> He told me that I mustn‘t come in without knocking at the door.
Notes: must 表示必须，在间接引语中，可以用原来形式，也可用had to / would have to ; 用在疑问句中， 间接引语中用had to
―I must be in the hospital tomorrow, ‖ he said. ——> He said that he must/ would have to be in the hospital the following day.
She asked, ―Must I take the medicine?‖——> She asked if she had to take the medicine. 7）此外转述中的变化要因实际情况而定，不能机械照搬，如果当地转述，here不必改为there, 动词come不必改为go，如果当天转述yesterday, tomorrow, this afternoon等均不必改变。如： Teacher: You may have the ball game this afternoon. Student : What did the teacher say, Monitor?
Monitor: He said we might have the ball game this afternoon. 26.4 Exercises 35A
How do you put the following into indirect speech?
1. ―Whenever my father was unhappy, ‖ Ann said, ―he would go out and buy something, usually something large and useless.‖ → Ann said whenever her father was unhappy he would go out and buy something, usually something large and useless.
2. Paul said, ―It‘s high time we left the place.‖ →Paul said it was high time they left the place. 3. ―You‘d better take someone with you,‖ said the manager. ―It is safer with two.‖ →The manager said I‘d better take someone with me as it was safer with two.
4. ―I wish I had six weeks for a holiday,‖ said Mr. Jones. →Mr. Jones said he wished he had six weeks for a holiday.
5. ―You needn‘t come in tomorrow,‖ said my employer. ―Take a day off.‖ → My employer said that I needn‘t come in the following day and told me to take a day off.
6. Mary said, ―When I saw them last they were listening to the recording.‖ → Mary said when she saw them last they were listening to the recording.
7. ―In most countries Red Cross stands for humanitarianism, ‖ said Mr. Jackson. → Mr. Jackson said that in most countries Red Cross stands for humanitarianism.
Lecture 27 Direct and Indirect Speech (II)
Changes in sentence structure 直接引语变成间接引语，句子结构的变化 1. Indirect statements 陈述句 用连词that引导，that在口语中常省略。主句的引述动词可用直接引语中的said, 也可用told来代替，注意，可以说said that, said to sb. that, told sb. that，不可直接说told that, 如： He said, ―I have been to the Great Wall.‖ ——>He said to us that he had been to the Great Wall. He said, ―I'll give you an examination next Monday.‖——>
He told us that he would give us an examination the next Monday.（不可说told that） 此外主句中的引述动词还常有：
repeat, whisper, answer, reply, explain, announce, declare, think等，又如：
He said，―I'm late because of the heavy traffic.‖——> He explained to us that he was late because of the heavy traffic.
如果间接引语是由that引导的两个或两个以上的并列从句，第一个连词可以省略，以后的连词一般不省略，以免混乱。
The doctor said, ―You are not seriously ill, You will be better soon.‖——> The doctor said（that）I was not seriously ill and that I would be better soon. 2. Indirect general questions 直接引语为一般疑问句，（也称是否疑问句，）间接引语用连词whether或if 引导，原主句中谓语动词said要改为asked（me/him/us等），语序是陈述句的语序，这一点非常重要。
He said, ―Do you have any difficulty with pronunciation?‖——>
He asked（me）whether/if I had any difficulty with my pronunciation. He said, ―You are interested in English, aren't you?‖——> He asked whether I was interested in English.
3. Indirect alternative questions 直接引语为选择疑问句，间接引语用whether…or…表达，而不用if…or…，也不用either…or…. 如：
He asked, ―Do you speak English or French?‖——>He asked me whether I spoke English or French..
I asked, ―Will you take bus or take train?‖——> I asked him whether he would take bus or take train.
4. Indirect special questions, the question wore such as who, what, how, when, is repeated in the indirect question 直接引语为特殊疑问句，改成间接引语时，原来的疑问词作为间接引语的连词，主句的谓语动词用ask（sb.）来表达，语序改为陈述句语序。如：
He asked，―Which chair shall I sit in?‖——> He asked（me）which chair he should sit in He asked us, ―How many car factories have been built in your country?‖——> He asked us how many car factories had been built in our country.
5. Indirect commands 直接引语为祈使句时，改为间接引语，用带to的不定式表达，谓语动词常是ask, advise, tell, warn, order, request等。如ask sb. to do，（由肯定祈使句变成）ask sb. not to do（由否定祈使句转变），并且在不定式短语中的时间状语、地点状语、人称及时态都作相应的变化。如：
He said，―Be seated, please.‖——> He asked us to be seated. ―Do be careful with your handwriting.‖ He said. ——> He told me to be careful with my handwriting.
―Never come here again!‖ said the officer nearby. ——> The officer ordered the villagers never to go there again.
―Don't touch anything in the lab without permission,‖ the teacher said. ——>
The teacher warned the students not to touch anything in the lab without permission.
Notes: a. some imperatives containing the advice 有些含有―建议‖、―劝告‖的祈使句，可用suggest, insist, offer等动词转述，如：
He said, ―Let's have a rest.‖——> He suggested our having a rest. He said, ―Let me help you.‖——> He offered to help me.
b. 当直接引语形式上是疑问句，有表示请求，建议意义时，可用ask sb. to do sth. /suggest doing/advise sb. to do sth. 等形式转述。如：
―Would you mind opening the door?‖ he asked. ——>He asked me to open the door. ―Why not going out for a walk?‖ he asked us. ——>
He advised us to go out for a walk. 或He suggested we go out for a walk. 8. Indirect exclamations 直接引语是感叹句时，变间接引语可用what或how引导，也可用that引导，
She said, ―What a lovely day it is!‖——> She said what a lovely day it was. 或She said that it was a lovely day.
Exercises (direct & indirect speech)
I. Multiple Choice:
1. Where was Alice‘s sister? I don‘t know where ________. A. was Alice‘s sister B. Alice‘s sister was C. is Alice‘s sister D. Alice‘s sister is
2. What did he say? I don‘t know what _________. A. did he say B. he says C. he has said D. he said 3. I don‘t know ___________.
A. the reason why can be B. why the reason may be C. what the reason can be D. what the reason may be
4. I wonder ___________ .which of the following is not the right choice? A. whether she will be fit for the job or not B. whether or not she will be fit for the job C. if she will be fit for the job D. what she will be fit for the job
5. Is Mr. Wu from Beijing? I don‘t know ________.
A. where does he come from B. from where does he come C. which city he comes from D. what city he comes from 6. Can you make sure ___________?
A. that he will come here today B. when he will come here today C. will he come here today D. whether will he come here today 7. Do you happen to know ________?
A. where is her address B. in which place is her address C. what her address is D. the place her address is 8. Excuse me, but can you tell me ___________?
A. where can I get to the library B. where I can get to the library C. how can I get to the library D. how I can get to the library 9. John asked me _______ to visit his uncle‘s farm with him. A. how would I like B. if or not would I like C. whether I would like D. which I would like 10. I‘d like to know ________ Chinese.
A. when he began to learn B. when did he begin to learn
C. when did he begin learning D. for how long he began to learn
II. Put the following into indirect speech:
1. ―You should be more careful next time,‖ his father said to him. His father told him that he should be more careful the next time.
2. Mr. Wang said, ―I will leave for Shanghai on business next month, children.‖
Mr. Wang told the children that he would leave for Shanghai on business the next month. 3. ―I haven‘t heard from my parents these days,‖ said Mary. Mary said that she hadn‘t heard from her parents those days.
4. The geography teacher said to us, ―The moon moves around the earth and the earth goes round the sun.‖
The geography teacher told us that the moon moves around the earth and the earth goes round the sun.
5. She said to him, ―It‘s time that you left here.‖ She told him that it was time that he left there.
6. Zhang Hong said to me, ―Doctor Wang passed away in 1948.‖ Zhang Hong told me that Doctor Wang passed away in 1948.
7. John said to his parents, ―I had learned 500 Chinese words by the end of last term.‖ John told his parents that he had learned 500 Chinese words by the end of last term.
8. The history teacher said to them, ―The Chinese Communist Party was founded on July 1st , 1921.‖
The history teacher told them that the Chinese Communist Party was founded on July 1st, 1921. 9. He said, ―Are you a student?‖ → He asked whether I was a student. 10. ―Have you anything interesting I can read, George?‖ she said. She asked George if he had anything interesting she could read. 11. ―She‘s here to ask for help, isn‘t she?‖ he asked. He asked whether she was there to ask for help or not.
12. ―Where are you going?‖ the father asked his son. → The father asked his son where he was going.
13. ―Are you sorry for what you have done?‖ the mother asked the naughty boy. The mother asked the naughty boy if he was sorry for what he had done. 14. She said, ―Did you meet this man at the station two hours ago, Mr. Li?‖ She asked Mr. Li whether he had met that man at the station two hours before. 15. ―Write your names on your papers first,‖ the teacher said to us. The teacher told us to write our names on our papers first. 16. ―Please come here again tomorrow,‖ her friend said to her. Her friend asked her to go there again the next/ following day.
17. ―Let me pack the parcel for you,‖ he said. → He offered to pack the parcel for me. 18. ―Don‘t make so much noise in class, boys and girls,‖ said the teacher. The teacher told the boys and girls not to make so much noise in class.
19. ―What a lovely day it is!‖ → He/ She exclaimed that it was really a lovely day. 20. ―Happy New Year to you!‖ he said. →He wished me a Happy New Year. III. Put the following into direct speech:
1. I told him that I had lost my money and that I would find it. I said to him, ―I have lost my money . I will find it.‖ 2. She asked whether I would be free the next day or not. She asked , ― You will be free tomorrow, won‘t you?‖
3. I asked her where she was going and what she was going to do the next day. I asked her, ―Where are you going and what are you going to do tomorrow?‖ 4. His father told him not to climb that high tree in his new coat. His father said, ―Don‘t climb this high tree in your new coat.‖ 5. The stranger asked me what my name was. The stranger asked, ― What‘s your name?‖
6. She said that she would finish her work the next day. →―I‘ll finish my work tomorrow,‖ she said.
7. The teacher asked if we could do it. → The teacher asked, ―Can you do it ?‖ 8. The commander ordered his men not to cross the river before dawn. The commander ordered his men, ―Don‘t cross the river before dawn.‖
9. My teacher asked whether he was coming.→ My teacher asked, ―Is he coming?‖
10. The scientist asked me what I was doing. → The scientist asked me, ―What are you doing?‖
倒 装 Inversion
英语中的语序通常是主语在前，谓语动词在后。所谓倒装就是把动词放在主语之前。这种情况出现在疑问句中，也出现在其他一些特殊情形下。
1 两种倒装 (Two types of inversion)
倒装一般分为两种，即主谓倒装和主语/功能词倒装。
1.1 主谓倒装 (Subject-verb inversion)
主谓倒装，又称为全部倒装（Full inversion），即把整个谓语动词放在主语之前。这一类倒装主要
出现于地点状语后面，said John, answered Peter等有直接引语的结构中以及表语提前的情况下。 例如：
--At the far end of the room stood a tall policeman. --―I love you,‖ whispered John.
--Completely different is the last story.
1.2 主语/ 功能词倒装 (Subject-operation inversion)
这种倒装又称为部分倒装，即把功能词(助动词或情态动词)放在主语之前，动词的其余部分
依然在
主语之后。如果句中没有助动词或情态动词，则要加一个助动词do, does或did。例如： --He had no money, nor did he know anyone he could borrow from. --On no account must this switch be touched.
--Only by chance did I hear that her mother had died. --Were she alive today, she would grieve at the changes.
2 在以neither, nor, so等开始的句子中 (Sentences beginning with neither, nor, so, etc.)
用neither, nor和so引导的句子表达某人、某事或某种情况与刚才提到的相同，在这种情况下必须
要用倒装。neither, nor表示―也不…‖；so表示―也如此‖。这种倒装是部分倒装。 --―I didn‘t get much sleep last night.‖ ―Neither/Nor did I.‖
--―My husband never touches a drying-up cloth.‖ ―Neither does mine.‖ --He refused to apologize. Neither/Nor would he offer any explanation.
--All the students were obviously very miserable. Nor were the teachers satisfied with the conditions at the school.
--John saw the accident and so did Mary. --She was angry and so was I.
请比较下面两句中so和neither/nor 表达截然不同的意思。 --The corn is ripening, and so are the apples.
--The corn isn‘t ripening, and neither/ nor are the apples. 请注意：
a. so放在句首也可以用来表达另外一种意思，即对于别人讲的情况加以肯定，表示附和。在这种情况
下，不用倒装。请比较：
--―You‘ve spilled coffee on your dress.‖ ― Oh, dear. So I have.‖ (哎哟，真的呀。)
--You‘ve spilled coffee on the table, and so have I. (=…, and I‘ve spilled coffee on the table, too.) --―That‘s Isabel, look!‖ ―So it is!‖ (就是她)
--―I‘m having a tooth out tomorrow.‖ ―So am I.‖ (=…, I am having a tooth out tomorrow, too.) --You asked me to leave, and so I did. (你叫我走，我就走了。)
--You asked him to leave, and so did I. （你叫他走，我也叫他走啊 。） b. neither虽然放句首，但是其中心词作句子主语时，不用倒装。例 如： --Neither of them wanted to stay.
c. Neither…nor…句型中的nor分句也应该用倒装。如： --Sam neither has long hair, nor does he wear jeans. --Mary was neither happy, nor was she sad.
--They have neither replied to my letters, nor have they answered my telephone calls.
3 在以否定副词（如hardly, never等）开始的句子中 (Sentences beginning with negative adverb expressions: hardly, never, etc.)
在正式文体中，许多表达否定意义的副词或状语词组可以放在句首。在这种情况下，必须用部分 倒装。表达否定意义的副词和词组常见的有seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, never, few, little, in
vain, much/ even/ still less, 以及含有no/ not的词组/句型如no sooner…(than), on no account, in no circumstances, in no way, by no means, at no time, no longer, not until, nowhere等等。例 如：
--Seldom had I seen such confusion.
--Never in history had technology made such spectacular advances. --Hardly had I arrived when a quarrel broke out.
--No sooner was she back at home than she realized her mistake. --At no time was the entrance left unguarded.
--Not till he got home did he realize that he had lost it. --On no account must this switch be touched. --In no circumstances must the door be left open. --In no way can Mrs. Pethers be held responsible. --To no one will they admit their guilt.
注意，如果位于句首的这种否定词/词组是作句子主语，句子不需要倒装。如： --Little help can be expected from Peter.
--Not a single word that he said entitles you to make that accusation. --No honest man would lie.
--Not many people came to the party.
4 在以表示地点或方向的副词（如here, there, down, away等）开始的句子中 (Sentences beginning with adverbs of position and direction: here, there, down, away, etc.)
当表示地点或方向的副词位于句首时，句子可用全部倒装。句中的谓语动词常常是come, lie, stand, walk, live等不及物动词或是系动词be。在文学性和描写性文章中采用这类倒装主要是为
了使其更加生动，而把主语置于句末则是为了使之成为信息中心。 --Down fell a dozen apples.
--Away goes my chance of winning!
--In walked a man dressed in a black gown. --Next to it stood a pile of paper cups.
--A few miles further on lies the enchanting suburb of Balham, gateway to the South. --Over the bridge marched the soldiers. --On the very top of the hill lives a hermit.
以上例句也可以不用倒装而用正语序，如： --A dozen apples fell down.
--My chance of winning goes away.
--A man dressed in a black gown walked in.
但是如果主要动词是be时，句子总是用倒装，这时将be动词置于主语之前。例如： --Below is a restaurant.
--Next to it is a different sign which says simply ―Beware‖. --Alongside him on the rostrum will be Mr. Mitchell Fromstein. 以here, there开始的倒装句在口语中尤其多见。如： --Ah, here comes somebody – at last! --There goes your last chance.
--Here comes the train.
--There goes the vicar (牧师).
试比较here, there放句首和放在动词之后的区别：―Tom is here.‖ 意思是―汤姆在这儿‖。但是―Here‘s
Tom.‖意味着他刚出现或我们刚发现他。―Tom comes here.‖意味着他习惯于来这儿。―Here comes
Tom.‖则有他正在到来或刚刚到达的含义。
注意：主语是代词时，此类以地点状语开始的句子不用倒装。 --Here she comes! 她来了！ --There he is.
--Away they went. --Down they flew.
--Into the stifling smoke we plunged.
5 在表语提前的句子中 (Sentences beginning with a fronted predicative)
表语（主语补语）置于句首时，句子需要全部倒装。这种倒装主要是为了达到三种目的： a. 把主语置于句末使之成为信息中心，同时又可以利用句子的前一部分来设置布景。例如： --Best of all was the Christmas pudding.
--Shot by nationalist guerrillas were two entirely innocent tourists. --Standing in the doorway was a man with a gun. b. 为了使上下文联系更紧密。例如：
--His answer was a disgrace; equally regrettable was his departure immediately afterwards. --Her face was stony and even stonier was the tone of her voice.
--A year ago, two crashes occurred, and more recently has come the news of a third. c. 避免头重脚轻（因为原句主语太长，而谓语太短。）如：
--At the head was Dr. Bethune on horse-back, followed by a donkey loaded with medical supplies.
--Just as firm was her determination to tell the truth about her experiences. --Faint grew the sound of the bell.
另外，出于同样的原因，有时会把状语提前，句子全部倒装。如：Without fear lives he who is devoted to a just cause.
6 在以only + 状语开始的句子中，或是not only…(but) also…句型中 (Sentences beginning with only
+ adverb, not only… (but) also…, etc.)
以only +状语开始的句子中，句子要部分倒装。在 ―not only…but also…‖ 句型中，not only分句要部
分倒装。这类倒装常见于正式文体中。如：
--Only after entering the store did Anne realize that there was danger. --Only in this way is it possible to explain their actions.
--Only in a few countries does the whole of the population enjoy a reasonable standard of living. --Only by shouting was he able to make himself heard.
--Not only did we lose all our money, but we also came close to losing our lives.
--Not only is he ill-mannered, but he is also the laziest and most irresponsible creature you could ever hope to meet.
--Not only do they rob you, they smash everything too. 注意：如果not only出现在句首，但它修饰的中心是句子主语，此时主语和功能词不能倒装。 --Not only he protested; several others joined in.
7 用于其他一些特殊句型中
7.1 用于有直接引语的句型中
在直接引语之后，―主语+ say/ ask之类的动词‖可以用正语序，也可以倒装，在书面语中常用全部倒 装。如：
--―What do you mean?‖ asked Henry. （or:…Henry asked.） --―Perhaps he isn‘t a bad sort of chap after all,‖ remarked Dave. --―I am aware of that,‖ replied the Englishman.
--―Please go away,‖ said one child. ― And don't come back,‖ pleaded another. 但是，主语是代词时不用倒装。请比较： --―What do you mean?‖ he asked.
--―Who‘s paying?‖ shouted the fat man at the corner. ―You are,‖ I answered.
7.2 用于表示祝愿/意愿的句型
这种祈求性虚拟语气一般只用于几种相当固定的说法中。如： --Long live the People‘s Republic of China! --Far be it from me to spoil the fun.
―may + 主语 + 谓语‖这种结构表示一种愿望或诅咒。 --May you live a long and happy life! --May the best man win!
--May he never set foot in this house again! --May you break your neck!
7.3 用于 ―so…that…‖句型中
把so置于句首的情形下，需要部分倒装。如： --So absurd did he look that everyone stared at him. --So suspicious did he become that…
--So vigorously did he protest that the authorities reconsidered his case.
7.4 用于as之后，表示状态和相似
倒装在文学体裁中有时出现在as之后，例如： --She traveled a great deal, as did most of her friends.
--The present owner is a keen art collector, as were several of her ancestors. --She looks forward, as does her secretary, to the completion of the building.
7.5 在条件和让步分句中，尤其在相当正式的用法中，可以用倒装。
a. 用于条件句中
表达虚拟的if从句(非真实条件从句)中的if可以省略，句子呈现倒装。例如： --Were I Tom I would refuse. (=If I were Tom…)
--Had I known what was going to happen, I would never have left her alone. （=If I had known …）
--Should you change your mind, no one would blame you. (= If you should change…) b. 用于以as, though引导的表达让步的从句中
在这样的分句中，句子部分倒装。如果是though作引导词，句子可以用倒装也可以不用倒装，而如
果是as为引导词，则一定要用倒装。如：
--Eloquent though/as she was, she could not persuade them. （or: Though she was eloquent…） --Child though Tom was then, he had to earn his living. (= Though Tom was a child then…) --Change your mind as you will, you will gain no additional support. 另外，that也可以象as, though一样用于倒装方式表示让步。如：
--Fool that he was, he managed to evade his pursuers. （= Even though he was a fool…） --Poor that they were, they gave money to charity. （= Even though they were poor…）
7.6 用于感叹句中
感叹句通常采用正语序，即主语在前，谓语在后。但有时感叹句采用的却是疑问句的形式。尤其是
在美国英语中，感叹句常常象普通疑问句。 --Isn‘t it cold! 真冷！
--Am I fed up! 我腻烦死了！
--Did he look annoyed! 他看来可气恼了！
7.7 句首为many a time, to such an extent, to such a degree, to such extremes, to such lengths, to such a point, with every justification, with good reason等状语时，句子需要部分倒装。
--To such a degree was he excited that he couldn‘t go to sleep that night.
强 调Emphasis
在交际中，人们为使自己的思想能为听者或读者恰当地理解，必须突出重要的内容，这就需
要运用强调的手段。在现代英语中，强调的手段多种多样，有词汇手段（通过单个的词或词组），语法手段（通过反身代词，助动词或强调句型），修辞手段（通过倒装和重复）等。
1 通过单个的词或词组（By a single word or phrase）
能够表示强调的词或词组很多，例如：only, just, exactly, precisely, too, very, ever, even, really, surely, for certain, for sure, still等。
a. only
从理论上讲，only应紧挨所修饰的词，位于动词、形容词、副词之前，位于名词、代词之前或之 后。
--He had only six apples. （只有六个） --He only lent the car. （只是借出）
--He lent the car to me only. （只是借给我）
--I believe only half of what he said. （只信一半）
当由only修饰的状语位于句首时，可引起局部倒装。
--Only then can some of the explanations put forward be adequately tested. --Only in this way can a good result be achieved.
--Only when all the rules are operating will the transformational grammar yield grammatical sentences.
b. just, exactly, precisely
当要强调确切性-不仅总体上而且各个细节上都正确，可用副词just, exactly, precisely。例如： --They'd always treated her exactly as if she were their own daughter. --Their décor（室内装饰） was exactly right. --I know just how you feel.
--He had no right to run off and leave her alone, just as if she was someone of no importance at all.
--The peasants are weak precisely because they are poor. c. too
表示\"太…\"。置于表语类属性形容词前，可表示某人或某物具有的某种属性过多。 --Dad thought I was too idealistic. --The shoes were too big for him. --He was too proud to apologize. --She was too weak to lift me.
Too还可置于限定词many，much和few之前，表示\"…太多\"\"…太少\"。 --You ask too many questions, Sam. --There is too much chance of error.
--Too few people nowadays are interested in Literature. d. very
--The job was very easy.
--He had come at the very last moment.
--That very next afternoon he was working in his room. --He spent weeks in that very same basement.
very可修饰形容词的最高级，这时它只能与加-est构成的最高级或the best/the worst 连用。very
置于the 和最高级之间。
--It was of the very highest quality. --He did the very best he could. e. ever
ever位于who, what, where, why, when, how之后，用来表示强调说话人惊奇、惊讶、愤怒、气恼
和沮丧的语气。它与on earth, in the world有同样的含义。 --Why ever did you wash it in boiling water? --Who ever are you?
--What ever are you doing in my car? --Where ever have you put my briefcase? --How ever did he escape unhurt?
为了强调否定，ever可置于否定词之后。 --I can't say I ever had much interest in fishing. --Nobody ever leaves the airport.
f. a good deal，a great deal，a lot，much，far，by far，even，still
这组词都常用来修饰形容词的比较级，强调形容词所表达方式的属性多得多或少得多。 --It would be a good deal easier if you came to my place.
--The journey back was a great deal more unpleasant than the outward one had been. --You look a lot better.
--He is a much better dentist than you. --There are far worse dangers. --His explanation is clearer by far. --She's even lazier than me. --I had a still more recent report.
--The text is actually worse still. (still可置于比较形容词之前或之后)
其中much和by far可修饰形容词的最高级。much用于the和最高级之前。 --Music may have been much the most respectable of his tastes. By far既可用于the和最高级之前，也可用于其后。 --They are by far the most dangerous creatures on the island. --The Union was the largest by far. g. for sure，for certain
这两个强调语都是放在句末使用。 --They will warn us for sure. --I can't tell you for sure.
--They don't know for certain.
h. at all通常用于否定陈述句中加强语气。它可与多种表否定的词连用。 --She had no writing ability at all.
--They run education without any control at all from central government. --He hardly read anything at all. --Haven't you got any at all?
i. in the least, in the slightest, the least bit, a bit.
这几个词组都常用来强调含有not 的否定句。其中in the least和in the slightest可与动词和形容词
连用。当他们与动词连用时，通常放在动词或动宾之后；当他们与形容词连用时，in the least可
置于形容词之前, in the slightest通常位于形容词之后。而the least和a bit只与形容词连用，放在
形容词之前。
--She did not worry Billy in the least.
--My tennis hadn't improved in the slightest. --I wasn't in the least surprised.
--She wasn't worried in the slightest. --She wasn't the least bit jealous. --They're not a bit interested.
2 通过反身代词，助动词或强调句型（By reflexive pronoun, auxiliary verb do or emphatic it）
a. 反身代词
人们有时用反身代词替代人称代词作介词宾语表示强调。 --My first pupil today is a Pole like myself.
--There is always someone worse off than yourself.
反身代词可附加在名词或人称代词之后，用于强调或明确所指对象。 --We ourselves have got to build our own strength. --Sally herself came back.
--The town itself was so small that it didn't have a priest.
反身代词还可强调表示某人无别人帮助或不受干扰做某事。这种用法中的反身代词通常置于句末。
--She had printed the card herself.
--I'll take it down to the police station myself. b. 助动词do
在动词原形前加do, does或did可强调陈述。 --I do feel sorry for Roger.
--A little knowledge does seem to be a dangerous thing.
--He had no time or energy to play with his children or talk with his wife, but he did bring home a regular salary.
--Do have a chocolate biscuit. --Do help yourselves.
c. It is/was…that/who…句型
用It is/was…that/who…句型可用来强调名词词组或句子其他成分或整个从句及小句上。强调句型it
is/was…that 是外加成分，可以去掉，句意完整。 --It's money that they want.
--It was from Francis that she first heard the news.
--Perhaps it's because he's a misfit that I get along with him.
--Is it Professor Wang who teaches you English? (本句型的疑问形式)
3 通过倒装和重复（By inversion or repetition） a. 倒装
英语陈述句的第一个成分通常是动词的主语。但是，要强调另一成分时，可将它置于句首（前置
fronting），而主语及动词的正常位置也会引起变动，这种位置变更叫倒装。 --Next to it stood a pile of paper cups.
--The door burst open and in rushed the crowd. --Often did we go for walks together.
--Never in history had technology made such spectacular advances.
--Rare indeed is the individual who does not belong to one of these groups. --Break his bloody neck, I will.
--Wailed the astonished banker: \"You're not just doing your part for the American economy.\" b. 重复
--It's far, far too expensive.
--I agree with every word you've said - every single word.
--It was the largest swarm of locusts that had ever been seen or that ever would be seen.
4 强调语的位置（Position of the emphasizer） 大多数强调语位于它们所强调的词项之前，但是也有一些可放前也可放后，例如：still, by far, in
the least, in the slightest。for certain和for sure则是位于句末。这些在第一节中都已经强调过， 在此就不再重复。强调语位置的不同，所要表达的内容也会有一定的差异。 --I really don't know him. = I don't know him at all. --I don't really know him. = I don't know him well.
really位于否定范围之内和之外引起两个句子之间的差异（划横线的部分为否定范围）。
省 略 Ellipsis
为了避免重复和使句意简洁紧凑，省去句中一个词或一个短语或因习惯上的用法省略某个成分，这样的句子叫省略句。例如：
--He came up, (he) sat down, and (he) stared at me. --I'm happy if you are (happy).
--He always wakes up earlier than I (wake up). --Don't tell me if you don't want to (tell me)..
所以，严格地讲，省略可以称之为\"语法省略\"，它指的是在上下文意思清楚的情况下省去某个语法单位。
1 在as, than, when, if, unless等连接词引导的从句中的省略 (In clauses introduced by as, than, when, if, unless, etc.)
在从属连接词as, than, when, while, if, unless, though, once等所引导的从句中，如果谓语动词为
be，且从句的主语又与主句的主语相同时，或者从句的主语是it且句意明确时，可省略从句主语和
be 动词或仅省略be 动词。
--As (she was) a child, she lived in Canada.
--As (it was) scheduled, they met on January 20 at the Chinese Embassy. --As (he was) a student he had known great poverty. （他当学生时，经历过很贫困的生活。） --He is taller than I (am).
--I have never met anyone cleverer than you (are).
--You are a little fatter than (you were) when I saw you last. （你现在比我上次见你时胖一点。）
--Look out for cars when (you are) crossing the street.
--When (it is) taken according to the directions, the drug has no side effects.（若按说明服用，本 药无任何副作用。）
--When (he was) rescued, he was almost dead.
--While (I was) eating my lunch, I heard a loud noise. --I'll go if (it is) necessary.
--If (it is) true, this will cause us a lot of trouble.
--If ( it is) not well managed, irrigation can be harmful. （如果管理不善，灌溉还可能有害处。）
--He glanced about as if (he was) in search of something. --It looks as if ( it is) going to rain.
--She worked extremely hard though (she was) still rather poor in health. --She is as tall as her mother ( is ).
--It's sometimes as cheap to buy a new one as (it is) to repair the old one. （有时买一个新的跟修理旧的一样便宜。）
--We'll send an engineer over to meet you as soon as (it is) possible. --George never speaks unless (he is) spoken to.
--Unless (I am) compelled to stay in by bad weather, I go for a walk every day. --Though (he was ) very tired, he did not give up. --Once ( it is) seen, the picture can never be forgotten. --Once (he is ) there, he is lost.
--Whether (he is) waking or sleeping, he breathes noisily.
--In our country everybody is an ordinary worker no matter what his position (is). --She pledged to complete her father's unfinished task, whatever the task (is). （她立誓不管付出多大代价也要去完成其父的未竟事业。） --I refuse , however favorable the conditions (are), to work there. --Anyone, no matter who (he is), may point out our shortcomings.
1.1 在主从复合句中，在句意明确的情况下主句的某一部分也可以省略
--(Is there) Anything you want to take with you? --(I) Hope you'll like the present.
--If he doesn't want to eat the cake, we'd better not force him to (do so). 注意：
从句的主语和从句所修饰的非谓语动词的逻辑上的主语一致时，也可省略从句的主谓。例如： --She told the children not to talk while (they were) eating. --He advised me not to say anything until (I was) asked.
2 其它各类型的省略 (Miscellaneous varieties of ellipsis)
不仅主从复合句中可以有省略，简单句、并列句中也有省略现象。尤其在对话中，省略是一 种非常普遍的现象
2.1 在句子开头省略主语、或主语和（或）助动词、或主语和谓语，这时的主语多为人称代词
--(I have) Never heard of such a thing. --(I) Hope to see you soon. --(I) Beg your pardon. --(Have you) Seen Mary?
--(I ) Wonder what she's doing.
--(You) Have to wait a bit, I'm afraid.
--(I'll) See you later.
--(Does) Anybody need help?
--(It is) Too bad we don't have time. --(Are you)Tired?
--(Have you) Got any ink?
--(I have) A word about your composition. --(It) Looks like rain.
--(You) Had a good time, didn't you? 注意：
1．句首可以省略的词有冠词、物主代词、人称代词和助动词。 2．当两个动词的主语相同时，就省去第二个动词的主语： --She sang and (she) played the guitar. 3．重复的助动词可以省略
--You could have come and (you could have) told me. 4．当有两个助动词时，一般只重复第一个。例如： --Jean hasn't been told, but I have (been told).
2.2 谓语或谓语的一部分省略
--Only one of us was injured, and he (was) just (injured) slightly. --(Is there) Anything you want?
--(There）Ought to be a comma here.
--John has written a poem and Bob (has written) a short story.
2.3 表语的省略
--I'm thirsty.
--Are you (thirsty)?
--Are these your friends? --Yes, they are (my friends).
--Sam seemed angry and George certainly was (angry).
2.4 宾语的省略
--Show me your essay.
--I'll show you (my essay) later.
--Which of them is the better choice? --Well, It's hard to tell (it).
--Let's do the dishes. I'll wash and you dry (the dishes).
2.5 从句的省略
--You have done better this time (than you did before). --He's taller than I thought (he was).
--You would do the same (if you were in my position).
2.6 并列句中的省略
在并列句中如果后面分句中有与前面相同的部分，就把后面重复的部分省去。 --I work in a factory and my brother (works) on a farm.
--Peter ate a cheese sandwich and (Peter) drank a glass of beer. --His sister majors in French and he (majors) in Chinese.
--It's cold in December in England, but (it's cold) in July in New Zealand
2.7 动词不定式的省略
--My parents hoped I would study medicine, but I didn't want to (study medicine). --I'll buy the tickets if you want me to (buy the tickets), --He didn't come, though we had invited him to (come).
2.8 助动词后的省略
--He said he'd write, but he hasn't (written).
--I can't see you today, but I can (see you) tomorrow. --She might sing, but I don't think she will (sing). 注意：
在be和have不是助动词时，后面也可以用省略形式，但其他非助动词后面一般不能省略。例如：
--I'm hungry.
--I'm (hungry) too. --Who has a bicycle? --I have (a bicycle).
2.9 在固定套语中的省略
--(I) Thank you. --(It) Doesn't matter. --(It's) All right. --What if it rains?
= What will happen if it rains? --Serve him right. --(I am) Sorry I'm late. --(It is) Well done!
--(When one is) Out of sight, (one is) out of mind. --(眼不见，心不想。）
--(This is) Not for sale. （非卖品。） --(Keep your) Hands off. （请勿动手。） --Why (should we) not let him go?
注意：
--Why should we not + 动词原形这种句型常省略为Why not + 动词原形
3 错误的省略 (Faulty ellipsis)
省略必须符合英语的语法规则，否则省略后的句子是病句。
3.1 在助动词前面，人称代词不一定都能省略
在have, be 和will 的肯定句式前面不能省略主语。例如，不能说： --Will see you soon. --Have seen her.
--Is coming this afternoon.
但是可以把主语代词和助动词一起省略： --See you soon. --Coming tomorrow. --Forgotten your name. 注意：
在I和it前面，不能只是省略助动词。
--Is it raining? 可以省略为Raining? 但不能说成It raining?
--Am I getting in your way? 可以省略为Getting in your way? 但不能说成I getting in your way?
3.2 从句里连接词后省略主语时，省略掉的主语必须和主句的主语一致，且谓语为实义动词时不能省 略主语。
以下三个例句是病句。
--As (he is) a qualified doctor, I trust his advice on medical matters. （从句的主语不是主句的主语，故不能省略。） --Though (they are) expensive, people buy them. （从句的主语不是主句的主语，故不能省略。） --When (we) lived in town we often went to the theatre. （从句中谓语为实义动词时，不能省略主语。）
句子转换
Transformation of Sentence
所谓句子转换，就是通过扩展或减缩的方法对原句的整个结构或对某个成分进行变换，使变换后的句子和原句的语义基本等同。学习这种句子转换，不仅有助于理解和掌握句型的基本转换规律，而且有助于学会理解结构不同而意义相同的句子，以及用不同的句子结构来表达相同的意思，从而提高语言运用能力。
1 简单句和并列句的互换（Transformation from simple into compound and from compound into simple）
1.1 简单句变为并列句
根据句子的含义将简单句中的一个短语扩展为一个分句，用and、but、or、so、for、therefore、 otherwise等并列连词连接，使之成为并列句。 a. 介词短语扩展为分句 1) 表示\"时间\"
--After working in the garden all day，I took a bath. --I worked in the garden all day，and took a bath. 2) 表示\"让步\"
--In spite of his injured leg he won the race. --His leg was injured but he won the race. 3) 表示\"原因\"
--Because of the bad weather we had to leave early. --The weather was bad，so we had to leave early. b. 不定式短语扩展为分句 1) 表示\"目的\"
--You must learn from other companies to achieve your aim.
--You must learn from other companies，or you will not achieve your aim. 2) 表示\"结果\"
--His eyesight is too poor to read such small letters.
--His eyesight is very poor and so he cannot read such small letters. c. 动词-ing形式扩展为分句 1) 表示\"时间\"和\"行为方式\"
--Hearing the news，they jumped with joy. --They heard the news and jumped with joy. --Humming a tune，she went into the bedroom. --She hummed a tune，and went into the bedroom. 2) 表示\"原因\"
--Not knowing her address，we couldn't get in touch with her.
--We didn't know her address，so we couldn't get in touch with her. d. 独立结构扩展为分句
独立结构表示\"时间\"或\"原因\"时，可扩展为分句。 --The shower being over，we continued to march. --The shower was over，and we continued to march.
--So many members being absent，we decided to put the meeting off. --So many members were absent，so we decided to put the meeting off.
1.2 并列句变为简单句
根据句子的含义，将并列句中的一个分句减缩为短语同时删去并列连词，使之成为简单句，并基本
保持原句的逻辑关系。
a. 并列分句减缩为介词短语 1) 表示\"时间\"
--We stood in the queue for hours，and we got good seats. --After standing in the queue for hours，we got good seats. 2) 表示\"让步\"
--He was seriously ill，but he came to the meeting. --Despite his serious illness，he came to the meeting. 3) 表示\"原因\"
--There is fog at Heathrow，and therefore the plane has been diverted. --Because of fog at Heathrow，the plane has been diverted. b. 并列分句减缩为不定式 1) 表示\"目的\"
--We must be early or else we won't get a seat. --We must be early to get a seat.
2) 表示\"结果\"
--The case was very heavy，so a child couldn't carry it. --The case was too heavy for a child to carry. c. 并列分句减缩为动词-ing形式 1) 表示\"时间\"和\"行为方式\"
--I washed the dishes and then I dried them. --Having washed the dishes，I dried them.
--He held the rope with one hand and stretched out the other to the boy in the water. --Holding the rope with one hand，he stretched out the other to the boy in the water. 2) 表示\"原因\"
--He heard an explosion，and therefore he phone the police. --Having heard an explosion，he phoned the police. d. 并列分句减缩为独立结构 1) 表示\"时间\"
--The homework was done，and the pupils felt greatly relieved. --The homework done，the pupils felt greatly relieved. 2) 表示\"原因\"
--Her eyes were dimmed with tears，so she did not see him enter. --Her eyes dimmed with tears，she did not see him enter.
2 简单句和复合句的互换（Transformation from simple into complex and from complex into simple）
2.1 简单句扩展为复合句
简单句中的名词词组、介词词组、不定式短语、动词-ing形式、独立结构以及形容词短语等可以扩
展为相应的从句，使之成为复合句，并基本上不改变原句的意义。 a. 扩展为名词从句 1）主语从句
--His study is very useful to you.（名词词组） --What he is studying is very useful to you.
--It was a pity for them to refuse to modify the plan.（不定式短语） --It was a pity that they refused to modify the plan.
--Mary's grumbling annoyed her husband.（动词-ing形式） (zhan) --That Mary should grumble annoyed her husband. 2）主语补足语从句
--The question is the propriety of doing that. （名词词组） --The question is whether it is proper to do that.
--My suggestion is to start work at once. （不定式短语） --My suggestion is that we should start work at once.
--Her chief worry was her lacking in experience.（动词-ing形式） (zha) --Her chief worry was that she lacked experience. 3）宾语从句
--No one can tell the time of his coming. （名词词组） --No one can tell when he will come.
--I can't understand him leaving his wife.（动词-ing形式） --I can't understand why he left his wife.
--I arranged for Tom to meet them.（不定式短语） (oxf) --I arranged that Tom should meet them.
--He insisted on my staying there. （介词短语） --He insisted that I should stay there. b. 扩展为形容词从句
--Jane，a girl of a strong character，naturally couldn't bear the idea of lagging behind. （名词词组）
--Jane，who is a girl of a strong character，naturally couldn't bear the idea of lagging behind. --She was the only one to survive the crash. （不定式短语） --She was the only one who survived the crash.
--The road leading to the city is difficult to walk on. （动词-ing形式） --The road which leads to the city is difficult to walk on. c. 扩展为副词从句 1）表示\"时间\"
--He has lived here since his return from abroad.（介词短语） --He has lived here since he returned from abroad.
--Hearing the sad news，we were very much grieved.（动词-ing形式） --When we heard the sad news，we were very much grieved. 2）表示\"原因\"
--Being a student, he was naturally interested in museums.（动词-ing形式） --Because he was a student，he was naturally interested in museums. --Happy and contented，they worked with enthusiasm.（形容词短语） --As they were happy and contented，they worked with enthusiam. --I am sorry not to have answered your letter earlier.（不定式短语） --I am sorry I haven't answered your letter earlier. (zha) 3) 表示\"目的\"
--The police stopped the traffic for me to get across the street. （不定式短语） --The police stopped the traffic so that I could get across the street.
--He hurried back to school for fear of missing too many classes. （介词短语） --He hurried back to school for fear that he should miss too many classes. 4) 表示\"结果\"
--He worked so well as to astonish every one of us. （不定式短语） --He worked so well that he astonished every one of us. 5) 表示\"让步\"
--With all his profound knowledge，he is always modest.（介词短语） --Although he has profound knowledge，he is always modest. --Waking or sleeping，the subject is always in his mind. (zhan)
--Whether he was awake or asleep，the subject is always in his mind. 6) 表示\"条件\"
--Weather permitting，we shall go for an outing.（独立结构）
--If weather permits，we shall go for an outing.
--With more money，they would have moved to a bigger house.（介词短语） --If they had had more money，they would have moved to a bigger house. 7) 表示\"比较\"
--The depth of the sea equals the height of the mountains. （名词词组） --The sea is as deep as the mountains are high. 8) 表示\"比例\"
--The air becomes cooler in proportion to the height of the ground.（介词短语） --The higher the ground is，the cooler the air becomes. 9) 表示\"方式\"
--She sings like a professional. （介词短语） --She sings as a professional does.
2.2 复合句减缩为简单句
在不改变原句基本含义的情况下，为使语言简练，可把复合句中的从句减缩为名词词组、介词短
语、不定式短语、动-ing形式、独立结构以及形容词短语等。其变换方式和简单句变换为复合句的
方式刚好相反。 a. 减缩为名词词组
--What he spoke at the meeting was encouraging. （主语从句） --His speech at the meeting was encouraging.
--That's why he disagrees with you about this. （主语补足语从句） --That's his reason for disagreement with you about this. --I don't know who owns the bike.（宾语从句） --I don't know the owner of the bike. b. 减缩为介词短语
--Our forces，who were now in control of all the bridgeheads，were ready to push eastward. （形容词从句）
--Our forces，now in control of all the bridgeheads，were ready to push eastward. --After it has laid its eggs，the turtle returns to the sea. （副词从句） --After laying its eggs，the turtle returns to the sea. c. 减缩为不定式短语
--It is a pity that you did not arrive by daylight . （主语从句） --It is a pity for you not to arrive by daylight.
--My idea is that we should stick to our original plan. （主语补足语从句） --My idea is to stick to our original plan.
--They agreed that a statue should be put up. （宾语从句） --They agreed to put up a statue.
--He wished to write an article that will attract public attention to the matter. （形容词从句） --He wished to write an article to attract public attention to the matter. --They were so surprised they didn't try to stop him. (副词从句) --They were so surprised as not to try to stop him.
d. 减缩为动词-ing形式
--He suggested that a reward should be offered. （宾语从句） --He suggested offering a reward.
--We shall arrive too late to catch the train which leaves at eight. (形容词从句) --We shall arrive too late to catch the train leaving at eight. --If you work hard，you will succeed. （副词从句） --Working hard，you will succeed. e. 减缩为独立结构
--When the report had been read，a lively discussion began.（副词从句） --The report having been read，a lively discussion began.
--If all the electricity were turned off，the world's transport and communication system would fall apart. （副词从句）
--With all the electricity being turned off，the world's transport and communication system would fall apart.
f. 减缩为形容词短语
--This is a question which is worthy of careful consideration. （形容词从句） --This is a question worthy of careful consideration.
3 并列句和复合句的互换（Transformation from compound into complex and from complex into compound）
并列句和复合句在一定条件下可以相互转换。表示复合句内容的并列句可转换成复合句；同样，
表示并列句内容的复合句也可转换成并列句。
3.1 并列句和含有副词从句的复合句的互换
分句之间含有时间、让步、条件、原因、目的、结果等关系的并列句，常可转换成含有副词从句
的复合句（a）;同样，含有这类副词从句的复合句也可转换成并列句（b）。 a. Our work is done，and we will go home. --When our work is done，we will go home. --He was tired，but he offered to carry her. --Tired as he was，he offered to carry her. --Out of sight，out of mind.
--If someone is out of sight，he will soon pass out of mind. --He did a good job，and he was praised by the principal. --As he did a good job，he was praised by the principal.
--They were hurrying on the way；they wanted to catch the first train. --They were hurrying on the way so that they could catch the first train. --He was diligent，and he got full marks. --He was so diligent that he got full marks.
b. Because he was beaten in the first round，he changed his tactics. --He was beaten in the first round，and therefore he changed his tactics.
--Although the traffic held us up，we got to the airport on time. --The traffic held us up，but we got to the airport on time.
3.2 并列句和含有形容词从句的复合句的互换
并列句的后一分句附带或补充说明前一分句的有关情况时，常可把后一分句变换成形容词从句 （a）；同样，表示附带或补充说明的形容词从句，也常可变换成分句（b）。 a. The boys are very diligent and active and they lived with us by the seaside last year. --The boys who lived with us by the seaside last year are very diligent and active.
--In the reading room，there are a lot of reference books and most of them are very useful. --In the reading room，there are a lot of reference books，most of which are very useful. --I gave him no definite answer，and that made him angry. --I gave him no definite answer，which made him angry. b. He likes reading，which I am glad to hear. --He likes reading，and I am glad to hear that.
--This note was left by Mr.Smith，who was here a few minutes ago. --This note was left by Mr.Smith，and he was here a few minutes ago.
3.3 并列句和含有名词从句的复合句的转换
a. 并列句转换为复合句
--Mr. Harry should have objected to this plan，and it was surprising. --It was surprising that Mr. Harry should have objected to this plan. --The director is going to some place，but we don't know where. --We don't know where the director is going. b. 复合句转换为并列句
--It was out of question that Tom was in trouble. --Tom was in trouble and it was out of question.
因篇幅问题不能全部显示，请点此查看更多更全内容